Summary

The biofuels market has emerged as a critical component in the global effort to transition towards more sustainable and environmentally friendly energy sources. Biofuels offer a promising alternative to traditional fossil fuels, particularly in the transportation sector. These renewable fuels, derived from biomass sources such as crops, agricultural residues, and organic waste, have the potential to significantly reduce  emissions and decrease dependence on oil reserves. The importance of the biofuels market extends beyond environmental benefits. It plays a crucial role in rural economic development, creating jobs in agriculture and biofuel production facilities. Additionally, biofuels contribute to energy diversification, enhancing national energy security by reducing reliance on imported fossil fuels. As governments worldwide implement policies to promote renewable energy and reduce emissions, the biofuels market has experienced substantial growth and technological advancement.

This comprehensive 400+ page report provides an in-depth analysis of the rapidly evolving global biofuels market, with detailed forecasts from 2025 to 2035. As the world transitions to more sustainable energy sources, biofuels are playing an increasingly critical role in reducing carbon emissions across transportation, industry, and power generation sectors.

The report offers a thorough examination of conventional and advanced biofuels, including biodiesel, renewable diesel, bioethanol, bio-jet fuel, biomethane, and emerging technologies like e-fuels and algae-based biofuels. It provides granular insights into market sizes, growth projections, key players, technological innovations, and regulatory landscapes shaping the industry's future. Report contents include: 

• Detailed market forecasts for major biofuel types from 2025-2035
• Analysis of feedstocks including energy crops, agricultural residues, forestry waste, and algae
• Evaluation of production processes like pyrolysis, gasification, and fermentation
• Assessment of biofuel applications in road transport, aviation, and marine sectors
• Profiles of 221 companies across the biofuels value chain. Companies profiled include BTG Bioliquids, Byogy Renewables, Caphenia, Cepsa, Enerkem, Electro-Active Technologies Inc., Eni S.p.A., Ensyn, FORGE Hydrocarbons Corporation, Genecis Bioindustries, Gevo, Haldor Topsoe, HutanBio,  Infinium Electrofuels,  Kvasir Technologies, Lootah Biofuels, Neste, OMV, Opera Bioscience, Quantum Commodity Intelligence, Reverion GmbH, Steeper Energy,  SunFire GmbH, Total, Vertus Energy, Viridos, Inc. and WasteFuel. 
• Examination of policy support mechanisms and sustainability criteria globally

The report segments the market by fuel type, feedstock, application, and region, providing comprehensive data on production volumes, consumption patterns, and trade flows. It highlights the shift towards advanced biofuels and the integration of biofuel production with carbon capture technologies.

Feedstock Analysis

A key focus is the evolving landscape of biofuel feedstocks, from first-generation food crops to advanced lignocellulosic biomass and waste streams. The report examines:

• Comparative analysis of feedstock costs and availability
• Sustainability concerns and land use change impacts
• Innovations in energy crop development and agricultural practices
• Potential of municipal solid waste and industrial residues as feedstocks
• Emerging feedstocks like algae and CO2 for e-fuel production

Production Technologies

The study provides an in-depth look at both established and cutting-edge biofuel production technologies, including:

• Advances in enzymatic hydrolysis for cellulosic ethanol
• Improvements in biodiesel and renewable diesel production processes
• Biomass gasification and Fischer-Tropsch synthesis for drop-in fuels
• Hydrothermal liquefaction for algal biofuels
• Power-to-X technologies for e-fuel synthesis
• Biogas upgrading and biomethane production

Market Applications

Detailed analysis is provided for key biofuel applications:

• Road Transport: Ethanol and biodiesel blending trends, flex-fuel vehicles, and heavy-duty applications
• Aviation: Progress in bio-jet fuel commercialization and airline adoption strategies
• Marine: Potential for biofuels in meeting IMO 2020 sulfur regulations
• Power Generation: Use of biogas and biomethane for electricity production
• Industrial Uses: Biofuels as process energy and feedstock for biochemicals

Regional Analysis

The report offers a comprehensive regional breakdown, covering:

• North America: US and Canadian biofuel policies and production capacities
• Europe: Impact of RED II directives on market growth
• Asia Pacific: Rapid expansion in China, India, and Southeast Asian markets
• Latin America: Brazil's leadership in sugarcane ethanol and emerging markets
• Africa and Middle East: Potential for biofuel production and consumption

Competitive Landscape

An extensive analysis of the competitive environment includes:

• Market shares of leading biofuel producers
• Detailed company profiles of over 200 key players
• Strategic initiatives, partnerships, and M&A activities
• Investments in capacity expansion and new technology development
• Emerging start-ups and their innovative approaches

Regulatory Framework

A thorough examination of the regulatory landscape influencing biofuel markets, including:

• Renewable fuel standards and blending mandates by region
• Carbon pricing mechanisms and their impact on biofuel competitiveness
• Sustainability criteria and certification schemes
• Trade policies affecting biofuel imports and exports

Emerging Trends and Opportunities

The report highlights key trends shaping the future of the biofuels industry:

• Integration of biofuel production with carbon capture and utilization
• Development of bio-refineries producing multiple value-added products
• Increasing focus on waste-based and circular economy approaches
• Growing interest in e-fuels and power-to-liquid technologies
• Potential of biogas and biomethane in decarbonizing natural gas grids

Challenges and Risks

The study also addresses major challenges facing the biofuels industry:

• Feedstock availability and price volatility
• Competition with electric vehicles in road transport
• Sustainability concerns and indirect land use change
• Scaling up advanced biofuel technologies

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Table of Contents

1 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 24

2 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 25

• 2.1 Comparison to fossil fuels 25
• 2.2 Role in the circular economy 26
• 2.3 Market drivers 26
• 2.4 Market challenges 27
• 2.5 Liquid biofuels market 28
  • 2.5.1 Liquid biofuel production and consumption (in thousands of m3), 2000-2023 28
  • 2.5.2 Liquid biofuels market 2020-2035, by type and production. 30

3 INDUSTRY DEVELOPMENTS 2022-2024 32

4 BIOFUELS 35

• 4.1 Overview 35
• 4.2 The global biofuels market 36
  • 4.2.1 Diesel substitutes and alternatives 37
  • 4.2.2 Gasoline substitutes and alternatives 38
• 4.3 SWOT analysis: Biofuels market 39
• 4.4 Comparison of biofuel costs 2024, by type 40
• 4.5 Types 41
  • 4.5.1 Solid Biofuels 41
  • 4.5.2 Liquid Biofuels 42
  • 4.5.3 Gaseous Biofuels 42
  • 4.5.4 Conventional Biofuels 43
  • 4.5.5 Advanced Biofuels 44
• 4.6 Feedstocks 46
  • 4.6.1 First-generation (1-G) 47
  • 4.6.2 Second-generation (2-G) 49
    • 4.6.2.1 Lignocellulosic wastes and residues 50
    • 4.6.2.2 Biorefinery lignin 51
  • 4.6.3 Third-generation (3-G) 55
    • 4.6.3.1 Algal biofuels 55
      • 4.6.3.1.1 Properties 56
      • 4.6.3.1.2 Advantages 56
  • 4.6.4 Fourth-generation (4-G) 57
  • 4.6.5 Advantages and disadvantages, by generation 58
  • 4.6.6 Energy crops 59
    • 4.6.6.1 Feedstocks 59
    • 4.6.6.2 SWOT analysis 60
  • 4.6.7 Agricultural residues 61
    • 4.6.7.1 Feedstocks 61
    • 4.6.7.2 SWOT analysis 62
  • 4.6.8 Manure, sewage sludge and organic waste 63
    • 4.6.8.1 Processing pathways 63
    • 4.6.8.2 SWOT analysis 63
  • 4.6.9 Forestry and wood waste 65
    • 4.6.9.1 Feedstocks 65
    • 4.6.9.2 SWOT analysis 65
  • 4.6.10 Feedstock costs 67

5 HYDROCARBON BIOFUELS 67

• 5.1 Biodiesel 68
  • 5.1.1 Biodiesel by generation 69
  • 5.1.2 SWOT analysis 70
  • 5.1.3 Production of biodiesel and other biofuels 72
    • 5.1.3.1 Pyrolysis of biomass 72
    • 5.1.3.2 Vegetable oil transesterification 75
    • 5.1.3.3 Vegetable oil hydrogenation (HVO) 76
      • 5.1.3.3.1 Production process 77
    • 5.1.3.4 Biodiesel from tall oil 78
    • 5.1.3.5 Fischer-Tropsch BioDiesel 78
    • 5.1.3.6 Hydrothermal liquefaction of biomass 80
    • 5.1.3.7 CO2 capture and Fischer-Tropsch (FT) 81
    • 5.1.3.8 Dymethyl ether (DME) 81
  • 5.1.4 Prices 82
  • 5.1.5 Global production and consumption 83
• 5.2 Renewable diesel 86
  • 5.2.1 Production 86
  • 5.2.2 SWOT analysis 87
  • 5.2.3 Global consumption 88
• 5.2.4 Prices 90
• 5.3 Bio-aviation fuel (bio-jet fuel, sustainable aviation fuel, renewable jet fuel or aviation biofuel) 91
  • 5.3.1 Description 91
  • 5.3.2 SWOT analysis 91
  • 5.3.3 Global production and consumption 92
  • 5.3.4 Production pathways 93
  • 5.3.5 Prices 95
  • 5.3.6 Bio-aviation fuel production capacities 96
  • 5.3.7 Challenges 96
  • 5.3.8 Global consumption 97
• 5.4 Bio-naphtha 99
  • 5.4.1 Overview 99
  • 5.4.2 SWOT analysis 100
  • 5.4.3 Markets and applications 101
  • 5.4.4 Prices 102
  • 5.4.5 Production capacities, by producer, current and planned 103
  • 5.4.6 Production capacities, total (tonnes), historical, current and planned 104

6 ALCOHOL FUELS 105

• 6.1 Biomethanol 105
  • 6.1.1 SWOT analysis 105
  • 6.1.2 Methanol-to gasoline technology 106
    • 6.1.2.1 Production processes 107
      • 6.1.2.1.1 Anaerobic digestion 108
      • 6.1.2.1.2 Biomass gasification 108
      • 6.1.2.1.3 Power to Methane 109
• 6.2 Ethanol 110
  • 6.2.1 Technology description 110
  • 6.2.2 1G Bio-Ethanol 111
  • 6.2.3 SWOT analysis 111
  • 6.2.4 Ethanol to jet fuel technology 112
  • 6.2.5 Methanol from pulp & paper production 113
  • 6.2.6 Sulfite spent liquor fermentation 113
  • 6.2.7 Gasification 114
    • 6.2.7.1 Biomass gasification and syngas fermentation 114
    • 6.2.7.2 Biomass gasification and syngas thermochemical conversion 114
  • 6.2.8 CO2 capture and alcohol synthesis 115
  • 6.2.9 Biomass hydrolysis and fermentation 115
    • 6.2.9.1 Separate hydrolysis and fermentation 115
    • 6.2.9.2 Simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (SSF) 116
    • 6.2.9.3 Pre-hydrolysis and simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (PSSF) 116
    • 6.2.9.4 Simultaneous saccharification and co-fermentation (SSCF) 117
    • 6.2.9.5 Direct conversion (consolidated bioprocessing) (CBP) 117
  • 6.2.10 Global ethanol consumption 118
• 6.3 Biobutanol 119
  • 6.3.1 Production 121
  • 6.3.2 Prices 121

7 BIOMASS-BASED GAS 122

• 7.1 Feedstocks 124
  • 7.1.1 Biomethane 124
  • 7.1.2 Production pathways 126
    • 7.1.2.1 Landfill gas recovery 126
    • 7.1.2.2 Anaerobic digestion 127
    • 7.1.2.3 Thermal gasification 128
  • 7.1.3 SWOT analysis 128
  • 7.1.4 Global production 129
  • 7.1.5 Prices 130
    • 7.1.5.1 Raw Biogas 130
    • 7.1.5.2 Upgraded Biomethane 130
  • 7.1.6 Bio-LNG 130
    • 7.1.6.1 Markets 130
      • 7.1.6.1.1 Trucks 130
      • 7.1.6.1.2 Marine 130
    • 7.1.6.2 Production 131
    • 7.1.6.3 Plants 131
  • 7.1.7 bio-CNG (compressed natural gas derived from biogas) 132
  • 7.1.8 Carbon capture from biogas 132
• 7.2 Biosyngas 133
  • 7.2.1 Production 133
  • 7.2.2 Prices 134
• 7.3 Biohydrogen 135
  • 7.3.1 Description 135
  • 7.3.2 SWOT analysis 136
  • 7.3.3 Production of biohydrogen from biomass 137
    • 7.3.3.1 Biological Conversion Routes 137
      • 7.3.3.1.1 Bio-photochemical Reaction 137
      • 7.3.3.1.2 Fermentation and Anaerobic Digestion 138
    • 7.3.3.2 Thermochemical conversion routes 138
      • 7.3.3.2.1 Biomass Gasification 138
      • 7.3.3.2.2 Biomass Pyrolysis 139
      • 7.3.3.2.3 Biomethane Reforming 139
  • 7.3.4 Applications 139
  • 7.3.5 Prices 140
• 7.4 Biochar in biogas production 141
• 7.5 Bio-DME 141

8 CHEMICAL RECYCLING FOR BIOFUELS 141

• 8.1 Plastic pyrolysis 142
• 8.2 Used tires pyrolysis 142
  • 8.2.1 Conversion to biofuel 144
• 8.3 Co-pyrolysis of biomass and plastic wastes 145
• 8.4 Gasification 146
  • 8.4.1 Syngas conversion to methanol 147
  • 8.4.2 Biomass gasification and syngas fermentation 151
  • 8.4.3 Biomass gasification and syngas thermochemical conversion 151
• 8.5 Hydrothermal cracking 152
• 8.6 SWOT analysis 153

9 ELECTROFUELS (E-FUELS) 154

• 9.1 Introduction 154
  • 9.1.1 Benefits of e-fuels 156
• 9.2 Feedstocks 157
  • 9.2.1 Hydrogen electrolysis 157
  • 9.2.2 CO2 capture 158
• 9.3 SWOT analysis 158
• 9.4 Production 159
  • 9.4.1 eFuel production facilities, current and planned 161
• 9.5 Electrolysers 162
  • 9.5.1 Commercial alkaline electrolyser cells (AECs) 164
  • 9.5.2 PEM electrolysers (PEMEC) 164
  • 9.5.3 High-temperature solid oxide electrolyser cells (SOECs) 164
• 9.6 Prices 164
• 9.7 Market challenges 167
• 9.8 Companies 168

10 ALGAE-DERIVED BIOFUELS 169

• 10.1 Technology description 169
• 10.2 Conversion pathways 169
• 10.3 SWOT analysis 170
• 10.4 Production 171
• 10.5 Market challenges 172
• 10.6 Prices 173
• 10.7 Producers 173

11 GREEN AMMONIA 174

• 11.1 Production 174
  • 11.1.1 Decarbonisation of ammonia production 176
  • 11.1.2 Green ammonia projects 177
• 11.2 Green ammonia synthesis methods 177
  • 11.2.1 Haber-Bosch process 177
  • 11.2.2 Biological nitrogen fixation 178
  • 11.2.3 Electrochemical production 179
  • 11.2.4 Chemical looping processes 179
• 11.3 SWOT analysis 179
• 11.4 Blue ammonia 180
  • 11.4.1 Blue ammonia projects 180
• 11.5 Markets and applications 181
  • 11.5.1 Chemical energy storage 181
    • 11.5.1.1 Ammonia fuel cells 181
  • 11.5.2 Marine fuel 182
• 11.6 Prices 184
• 11.7 Estimated market demand 186
• 11.8 Companies and projects 186

12 BIOFUELS FROM CARBON CAPTURE 188

• 12.1 Overview 189
• 12.2 CO2 capture from point sources 191
• 12.3 Production routes 192
• 12.4 SWOT analysis 193
• 12.5 Direct air capture (DAC) 194
  • 12.5.1 Description 194
  • 12.5.2 Deployment 196
  • 12.5.3 Point source carbon capture versus Direct Air Capture 196
  • 12.5.4 Technologies 197
    • 12.5.4.1 Solid sorbents 198
    • 12.5.4.2 Liquid sorbents 200
    • 12.5.4.3 Liquid solvents 200
    • 12.5.4.4 Airflow equipment integration 201
    • 12.5.4.5 Passive Direct Air Capture (PDAC) 201
    • 12.5.4.6 Direct conversion 202
    • 12.5.4.7 Co-product generation 202
    • 12.5.4.8 Low Temperature DAC 202
    • 12.5.4.9 Regeneration methods 203
  • 12.5.5 Commercialization and plants 203
  • 12.5.6 Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) in DAC 204
  • 12.5.7 DAC plants and projects-current and planned 204
  • 12.5.8 Markets for DAC 211
  • 12.5.9 Costs 212
  • 12.5.10 Challenges 217
  • 12.5.11 Players and production 218
• 12.6 Carbon utilization for biofuels 218
  • 12.6.1 Production routes 222
    • 12.6.1.1 Electrolyzers 223
    • 12.6.1.2 Low-carbon hydrogen 223
  • 12.6.2 Products & applications 225
    • 12.6.2.1 Vehicles 225
    • 12.6.2.2 Shipping 225
    • 12.6.2.3 Aviation 226
    • 12.6.2.4 Costs 227
    • 12.6.2.5 Ethanol 227
    • 12.6.2.6 Methanol 228
    • 12.6.2.7 Sustainable Aviation Fuel 232
    • 12.6.2.8 Methane 232
    • 12.6.2.9 Algae based biofuels 233
    • 12.6.2.10 CO?-fuels from solar 234
  • 12.6.3 Challenges 236
  • 12.6.4 SWOT analysis 237
  • 12.6.5 Companies 238

13 BIO-OILS (PYROLYSIS OIL) 241

• 13.1 Description 241
  • 13.1.1 Advantages of bio-oils 241
• 13.2 Production 243
  • 13.2.1 Fast Pyrolysis 243
  • 13.2.2 Costs of production 243
  • 13.2.3 Upgrading 243
• 13.3 SWOT analysis 245
• 13.4 Applications 246
• 13.5 Bio-oil producers 246
• 13.6 Prices 247

14 REFUSE-DERIVED FUELS (RDF) 248

• 14.1 Overview 248
• 14.2 Production 248
  • 14.2.1 Production process 249
  • 14.2.2 Mechanical biological treatment 249
• 14.3 Markets 250

15 COMPANY PROFILES 251 (221 company profiles)

16 REFERENCES 418

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List of Tables/Graphs

List of Tables

• Table 1. Market drivers for biofuels. 26
• Table 2. Market challenges for biofuels. 27
• Table 3. Liquid biofuels market 2020-2035, by type and production. 30
• Table 4. Industry developments in biofuels 2022-2024. 32
• Table 5. Comparison of biofuels. 35
• Table 6. Comparison of biofuel costs (USD/liter) 2024, by type. 40
• Table 7. Categories and examples of solid biofuel. 41
• Table 8. Comparison of biofuels and e-fuels to fossil and electricity. 44
• Table 9. Classification of biomass feedstock. 46
• Table 10. Biorefinery feedstocks. 46
• Table 11. Feedstock conversion pathways. 47
• Table 12. First-Generation Feedstocks. 47
• Table 13. Lignocellulosic ethanol plants and capacities. 50
• Table 14. Comparison of pulping and biorefinery lignins. 51
• Table 15. Commercial and pre-commercial biorefinery lignin production facilities and processes 52
• Table 16. Operating and planned lignocellulosic biorefineries and industrial flue gas-to-ethanol. 54
• Table 17. Properties of microalgae and macroalgae. 56
• Table 18. Yield of algae and other biodiesel crops. 57
• Table 19. Advantages and disadvantages of biofuels, by generation. 58
• Table 20. Biodiesel by generation. 69
• Table 21. Biodiesel production techniques. 72
• Table 22. Summary of pyrolysis technique under different operating conditions. 73
• Table 23. Biomass materials and their bio-oil yield. 74
• Table 24. Biofuel production cost from the biomass pyrolysis process. 75
• Table 25. Properties of vegetable oils in comparison to diesel. 76
• Table 26. Main producers of HVO and capacities. 78
• Table 27. Example commercial Development of BtL processes. 79
• Table 28. Pilot or demo projects for biomass to liquid (BtL) processes. 79
• Table 29. Global biodiesel consumption, 2010-2035 (M litres/year). 84
• Table 30. Global renewable diesel consumption, 2010-2035 (M litres/year). 89
• Table 31. Renewable diesel price ranges. 90
• Table 32. Advantages and disadvantages of Bio-aviation fuel. 91
• Table 33. Production pathways for Bio-aviation fuel. 93
• Table 34. Current and announced Bio-aviation fuel facilities and capacities. 96
• Table 35. Global bio-jet fuel consumption 2019-2035 (Million litres/year). 97
• Table 36. Bio-based naphtha markets and applications. 101
• Table 37. Bio-naphtha market value chain. 101
• Table 38. Bio-naphtha pricing against petroleum-derived naphtha and related fuel products. 103
• Table 39. Bio-based Naphtha production capacities, by producer. 103
• Table 40. Comparison of biogas, biomethane and natural gas. 108
• Table 41.  Processes in bioethanol production. 116
• Table 42. Microorganisms used in CBP for ethanol production from biomass lignocellulosic. 117
• Table 43. Ethanol consumption 2010-2035 (million litres). 118
• Table 44. Biogas feedstocks. 124
• Table 45. Existing and planned bio-LNG production plants. 131
• Table 46. Methods for capturing carbon dioxide from biogas. 132
• Table 47. Comparison of different Bio-H2 production pathways. 137
• Table 48. Markets and applications for biohydrogen. 139
• Table 49. Summary of gasification technologies. 146
• Table 50. Overview of hydrothermal cracking for advanced chemical recycling. 152
• Table 51. Applications of e-fuels, by type. 155
• Table 52. Overview of e-fuels. 156
• Table 53. Benefits of e-fuels. 156
• Table 54. eFuel production facilities, current and planned. 161
• Table 55. Main characteristics of different electrolyzer technologies. 163
• Table 56. Market challenges for e-fuels. 167
• Table 57. E-fuels companies. 168
• Table 58. Algae-derived biofuel producers. 173
• Table 59. Green ammonia projects (current and planned). 177
• Table 60. Blue ammonia projects. 180
• Table 61. Ammonia fuel cell technologies. 181
• Table 62. Market overview of green ammonia in marine fuel. 182
• Table 63. Summary of marine alternative fuels. 183
• Table 64. Estimated costs for different types of ammonia. 185
• Table 65. Main players in green ammonia. 186
• Table 66. Market overview for CO2 derived fuels. 189
• Table 67. Point source examples. 191
• Table 68. Advantages and disadvantages of DAC. 195
• Table 69. Companies developing airflow equipment integration with DAC. 201
• Table 70. Companies developing Passive Direct Air Capture (PDAC) technologies. 201
• Table 71. Companies developing regeneration methods for DAC technologies. 203
• Table 72. DAC companies and technologies. 203
• Table 73. DAC technology developers and production. 205
• Table 74. DAC projects in development. 210
• Table 75. Markets for DAC. 211
• Table 76. Costs summary for DAC. 212
• Table 77. Cost estimates of DAC. 215
• Table 78. Challenges for DAC technology. 217
• Table 79. DAC companies and technologies. 218
• Table 80. Market overview for CO2 derived fuels. 220
• Table 81. Main production routes and processes for manufacturing fuels from captured carbon dioxide. 223
• Table 82. CO?-derived fuels projects. 224
• Table 83. Thermochemical methods to produce methanol from CO2. 229
• Table 84. pilot plants for CO2-to-methanol conversion. 231
• Table 85. Microalgae products and prices. 234
• Table 86. Main Solar-Driven CO2 Conversion Approaches. 236
• Table 87. Market challenges for CO2 derived fuels. 236
• Table 88. Companies in CO2-derived fuel products. 238
• Table 89. Typical composition and physicochemical properties reported for bio-oils and heavy petroleum-derived oils. 242
• Table 90. Properties and characteristics of pyrolysis liquids derived from biomass versus a fuel oil. 242
• Table 91. Main techniques used to upgrade bio-oil into higher-quality fuels. 244
• Table 92. Markets and applications for bio-oil. 246
• Table 93. Bio-oil producers. 246
• Table 94. Key resource recovery technologies 249
• Table 95. Markets and end uses for refuse-derived fuels (RDF). 250
• Table 96. Granbio Nanocellulose Processes. 323

List of Figures

• Figure 1. Liquid biofuel production and consumption (in thousands of m3), 2000-2022. 29
• Figure 2. Distribution of global liquid biofuel production in 2022. 30
• Figure 3. Diesel and gasoline alternatives and blends. 38
• Figure 4. SWOT analysis for biofuels. 40
• Figure 5. Schematic of a biorefinery for production of carriers and chemicals. 52
• Figure 6. Hydrolytic lignin powder. 55
• Figure 7. SWOT analysis for energy crops in biofuels. 61
• Figure 8. SWOT analysis for agricultural residues in biofuels. 63
• Figure 9. SWOT analysis for Manure, sewage sludge and organic waste in biofuels. 65
• Figure 10. SWOT analysis for forestry and wood waste in biofuels. 67
• Figure 11. Range of biomass cost by feedstock type. 67
• Figure 12. Regional production of biodiesel (billion litres). 69
• Figure 13. SWOT analysis for biodiesel. 71
• Figure 14. Flow chart for biodiesel production. 76
• Figure 15. Biodiesel (B20) average prices, current and historical, USD/litre. 82
• Figure 16. Global biodiesel consumption, 2010-2035 (M litres/year). 84
• Figure 17. SWOT analysis for renewable iesel. 88
• Figure 18. Global renewable diesel consumption, 2010-2035 (M litres/year). 89
• Figure 19. SWOT analysis for Bio-aviation fuel. 92
• Figure 20. Global bio-jet fuel consumption to 2019-2035 (Million litres/year). 97
• Figure 21. SWOT analysis for bio-naphtha. 100
• Figure 22. Bio-based naphtha production capacities, 2018-2035 (tonnes). 105
• Figure 23. SWOT analysis biomethanol. 106
• Figure 24. Renewable Methanol Production Processes from Different Feedstocks. 107
• Figure 25. Production of biomethane through anaerobic digestion and upgrading. 108
• Figure 26. Production of biomethane through biomass gasification and methanation. 109
• Figure 27. Production of biomethane through the Power to methane process. 110
• Figure 28. SWOT analysis for ethanol. 112
• Figure 29. Ethanol consumption 2010-2035 (million litres). 118
• Figure 30. Properties of petrol and biobutanol. 120
• Figure 31. Biobutanol production route. 120
• Figure 32. Biogas and biomethane pathways. 123
• Figure 33. Overview of biogas utilization. 125
• Figure 34. Biogas and biomethane pathways. 126
• Figure 35. Schematic overview of anaerobic digestion process for biomethane production. 128
• Figure 36. Schematic overview of biomass gasification for biomethane production. 128
• Figure 37. SWOT analysis for biogas. 129
• Figure 38. Total syngas market by product in MM Nm³/h of Syngas, 2023. 134
• Figure 39. SWOT analysis for biohydrogen. 136
• Figure 40. Waste plastic production pathways to (A) diesel and (B) gasoline 142
• Figure 41. Schematic for Pyrolysis of Scrap Tires. 144
• Figure 42. Used tires conversion process. 145
• Figure 43. Total syngas market by product in MM Nm³/h of Syngas, 2023. 147
• Figure 44. Overview of biogas utilization. 149
• Figure 45. Biogas and biomethane pathways. 150
• Figure 46. SWOT analysis for chemical recycling of biofuels. 153
• Figure 47. Process steps in the production of electrofuels. 154
• Figure 48. Mapping storage technologies according to performance characteristics. 155
• Figure 49. Production process for green hydrogen. 158
• Figure 50. SWOT analysis for E-fuels. 159
• Figure 51. E-liquids production routes. 160
• Figure 52. Fischer-Tropsch liquid e-fuel products. 160
• Figure 53. Resources required for liquid e-fuel production. 161
• Figure 54. Levelized cost and fuel-switching CO2 prices of e-fuels. 165
• Figure 55. Cost breakdown for e-fuels. 167
• Figure 56. Pathways for algal biomass conversion to biofuels. 169
• Figure 57. SWOT analysis for algae-derived biofuels. 170
• Figure 58. Algal biomass conversion process for biofuel production. 172
• Figure 59. Classification and process technology according to carbon emission in ammonia production. 174
• Figure 60. Green ammonia production and use. 176
• Figure 61. Schematic of the Haber Bosch ammonia synthesis reaction. 178
• Figure 62. Schematic of hydrogen production via steam methane reformation. 178
• Figure 63. SWOT analysis for green ammonia. 180
• Figure 64. Estimated production cost of green ammonia. 185
• Figure 65. Projected annual ammonia production, million tons to 2050. 186
• Figure 66. CO2 capture and separation technology. 188
• Figure 67. Conversion route for CO2-derived fuels and chemical intermediates. 190
• Figure 68. Conversion pathways for CO2-derived methane, methanol and diesel. 191
• Figure 69. SWOT analysis for biofuels from carbon capture. 193
• Figure 70. CO2 captured from air using liquid and solid sorbent DAC plants, storage, and reuse. 194
• Figure 71. Global CO2 capture from biomass and DAC in the Net Zero Scenario. 195
• Figure 72. DAC technologies. 197
• Figure 73. Schematic of Climeworks DAC system. 198
• Figure 74. Climeworks’ first commercial direct air capture (DAC) plant, based in Hinwil, Switzerland. 199
• Figure 75. Flow diagram for solid sorbent DAC. 200
• Figure 76. Direct air capture based on high temperature liquid sorbent by Carbon Engineering. 200
• Figure 77. Global capacity of direct air capture facilities. 205
• Figure 78. Global map of DAC and CCS plants. 211
• Figure 79. Schematic of costs of DAC technologies. 213
• Figure 80. DAC cost breakdown and comparison. 214
• Figure 81. Operating costs of generic liquid and solid-based DAC systems. 216
• Figure 82. Conversion route for CO2-derived fuels and chemical intermediates. 221
• Figure 83. Conversion pathways for CO2-derived methane, methanol and diesel. 222
• Figure 84. CO2 feedstock for the production of e-methanol. 230
• Figure 85. Schematic illustration of (a) biophotosynthetic, (b) photothermal, (c) microbial-photoelectrochemical, (d) photosynthetic and photocatalytic (PS/PC), (e) photoelectrochemical (PEC), and (f) photovoltaic plus electrochemical (PV+EC) approaches for CO2. 235
• Figure 86. SWOT analysis: CO2 utilization in fuels. 237
• Figure 87. Audi synthetic fuels. 238
• Figure 88. Bio-oil upgrading/fractionation techniques. 244
• Figure 89. SWOT analysis for bio-oils. 245
• Figure 90. ANDRITZ Lignin Recovery process. 258
• Figure 91. ChemCyclingTM prototypes. 264
• Figure 92. ChemCycling circle by BASF. 265
• Figure 93. FBPO process 277
• Figure 94. Direct Air Capture Process. 281
• Figure 95. CRI process. 283
• Figure 96. Cassandra Oil process. 287
• Figure 97. Colyser process. 295
• Figure 98. ECFORM electrolysis reactor schematic. 300
• Figure 99. Dioxycle modular electrolyzer. 301
• Figure 100. Domsjö process. 302
• Figure 101. FuelPositive system. 316
• Figure 102. INERATEC unit. 334
• Figure 103. Infinitree swing method. 336
• Figure 104. Audi/Krajete unit. 342
• Figure 105. Enfinity cellulosic ethanol technology process. 371
• Figure 106: Plantrose process. 379
• Figure 107. Sunfire process for Blue Crude production. 398
• Figure 108. Takavator. 401
• Figure 109. O12 Reactor. 404
• Figure 110. Sunglasses with lenses made from CO2-derived materials. 405
• Figure 111. CO2 made car part. 405
• Figure 112. The Velocys process. 408
• Figure 113. Goldilocks process and applications. 411
• Figure 114. The Proesa® Process. 412