Summary

The new era of chemicals represents a paradigm shift in the chemical industry, driven by the need for sustainability, technological advancements, and changing market demands. This transformation is characterized by a move away from fossil-based feedstocks towards renewable and circular resources, coupled with innovative production methods that minimize environmental impact. Key aspects of this new era include:

• Sustainable Feedstocks: Utilization of biomass, CO2, and waste materials as raw materials for chemical production, reducing dependence on fossil resources.
• Green Chemistry: Application of principles that reduce or eliminate the use and generation of hazardous substances in chemical processes.
• Circular Economy: Design of chemical products and processes for reuse, recycling, and upcycling, minimizing waste and maximizing resource efficiency.
• Electrification: Integration of renewable electricity in chemical processes, including electrocatalysis and electrochemical synthesis.
• Digitalization: Use of AI, machine learning, and advanced analytics to optimize processes and accelerate innovation.

Technology areas covered in this new era include:

• Biorefining: Converting biomass into a spectrum of valuable chemicals and materials.
• CO2 Utilization: Capturing and converting CO2 into chemicals, fuels, and materials.
• Advanced Catalysis: Developing highly selective and efficient catalysts for sustainable processes.
• Synthetic Biology: Engineering microorganisms to produce chemicals from renewable feedstocks.
• Flow Chemistry: Continuous manufacturing processes for improved efficiency and control.
• Additive Manufacturing: 3D printing of chemicals and materials for customized production.
• Advanced Materials: Developing sustainable, high-performance materials like bioplastics and advanced composites.
• Green Solvents: Creating bio-based and low-impact solvents to replace harmful traditional solvents.
• Process Intensification: Designing more compact, efficient, and integrated chemical processes.
• Waste Valorization: Converting waste streams into valuable chemicals and materials.
• Artificial Intelligence in Chemical Design: The use of AI and machine learning for molecular design, process optimization, and predictive modeling is becoming a significant market area in chemical innovation.
• Personalized Chemistry: This includes the development of customized chemicals and materials for personalized medicine, cosmetics, and other consumer products.
• Quantum Chemistry: Although still emerging, this field uses quantum mechanical principles to develop new materials and chemical processes, potentially revolutionizing various industries.

This new era of chemicals is not just about individual technologies but their integration into holistic, sustainable chemical value chains. It promises to deliver innovative solutions to global challenges while creating new economic opportunities and reducing the environmental footprint of the chemical industry. This report analyzes the sustainable chemicals market, offering insights into trends, technologies, and market opportunities from 2025 to 2035. Report contents include:

• Market Drivers and Trends
• Sustainable Feedstocks and Green Chemistry
• Circular Economy in the Chemical Industry
• Emerging Technologies and Manufacturing Processes
  • Electrification of chemical processes
  • Digitalization and Industry 4.0 applications
  • Advanced manufacturing technologies
  • Biorefining and industrial biotechnology
  • CO2 utilization technologies
  • Advanced catalysts
  • Synthetic biology and metabolic engineering
• Market Segments and Applications:
  • Sustainable materials and polymers
  • Green solvents and process chemicals
  • Sustainable agriculture chemicals
  • Renewable energy technologies
  • Sustainable construction materials
  • Green cosmetics and personal care products
  • Sustainable packaging
  • Eco-friendly paints and coatings
  • Green electronics
  • Sustainable textiles and fibers
  • Alternative fuels and lubricants
  • Pharmaceuticals and healthcare applications
  • Water treatment and purification solutions
  • Carbon capture and utilization products
  • Industrial biotechnology products
  • Advanced materials for 3D printing
• Regulatory Landscape and Policy Analysis
• Economic Aspects and Business Models
• Future Outlook and Emerging Trends
• Company Profiles and Competitive Landscape-profiles of over 1,000 key players in the sustainable chemicals market, analyzing their strategies, products, and market positions. Companies profiled include Aanika Biosciences, ACCUREC-Recycling GmbH, Aduro Clean Technologies, Aemetis, Agra Energy, Agilyx, Air Company, Aircela, Algenol, Allozymes, Alpha Biofuels, AM Green, Amyris, Andritz, APChemi, Apeiron Bioenergy, Aperam BioEnergia, Applied Research Associates (ARA), Aralez Bio, Arcadia eFuels, Ascend Elements, ASB Biodiesel, Atmonia, Avalon BioEnergy, Avantium, Avioxx, BANiQL, BASF, BBCA Biochemical & GALACTIC Lactic Acid, BBGI, BDI-BioEnergy International, BEE Biofuel, Benefuel, Bio2Oil, Bio-Oils, Biofibre GmbH, Bioform Technologies, Biofine Technology, Biofy, BiogasClean, BIOD Energy, Biojet, Biokemik, BIOLO, BioLogiQ, Inc., Biome Bioplastics, Biomass Resin Holdings Co., Ltd., Biomatter, BIO-FED, BIO-LUTIONS International AG, Bioplastech Ltd, BioSmart Nano, BIOTEC GmbH & Co. KG, Biovectra, Biovox GmbH, BlockTexx Pty Ltd., Bloom Biorenewables, Blue BioFuels, Blue Ocean Closures, BlueAlp Technology, Bluepha Beijing Lanjing Microbiology Technology Co., Ltd., BOBST, Borealis AG, Braskem, Braven Environmental, Brightmark Energy, Brightplus Oy, bse Methanol, BTG Bioliquids, Bucha Bio, Business Innovation Partners Co., Ltd., Buyo, Byogy Renewables, C1 Green Chemicals, Caphenia, Carbiolice, Carbios, Carbonade, CarbonBridge, Carbon Collect, Carbon Engineering, Carbon Infinity, Carbon Neutral Fuels, Carbon Recycling International, Carbon Sink, Carbyon, Cardia Bioplastics Ltd., CARAPAC Company, Cargill, Cascade Biocatalysts, Cass Materials Pty Ltd, Cassandra Oil, Casterra Ag, Celanese Corporation, Celtic Renewables, Cellugy, Cellutech AB (Stora Enso), Cereal Process Technologies (CPT), CERT Systems, CF Industries Holdings, Chemkey Advanced Materials Technology (Shanghai) Co., Ltd., Chemol Company (Seydel), Chitose Bio Evolution, Circla Nordic, Cirba Solutions, CJ Biomaterials, Inc., CleanJoule, Climeworks, Coastgrass ApS, CNF Biofuel, Concord Blue Engineering, Constructive Bio, Cool Planet Energy Systems, Corumat, Inc., Corsair Group International, Coval Energy, Crimson Renewable Energy, Cruz Foam, Cryotech, CuanTec Ltd., Cyclic Materials, C-Zero, Daicel Polymer Ltd., Daio Paper Corporation, Danimer Scientific, D-CRBN, Debut Biotechnology, DIC Corporation, DIC Products, Inc., Diamond Green Diesel, Dimensional Energy, Dioxide Materials, Dioxycle, DKS Co. Ltd., Domsjö Fabriker, Dow, Inc., DuFor Resins B.V., DuPont, Earthodic Pty Ltd., EarthForm, EcoCeres, Eco Environmental, Eco Fuel Technology, Ecomann Biotechnology Co., Ltd., Ecoshell, Electro-Active Technologies, Eligo Bioscience, Enim, Enginzyme AB, Enzymit, Erebagen, EV Biotech, eversyn, Evolutor, FabricNano, FlexSea, Floreon, Gevo, Ginkgo Bioworks, Heraeus Remloy, HyProMag, Hyfé, Invizyne Technologies, JPM Silicon GmbH, LanzaTech, Librec AG, Lygos, MagREEsource, Mammoth Biosciences, MetaCycler BioInnovations, Mi Terro, NeoMetals, Noveon Magnetics, Novozymes A/S, NTx, Origin Materials, Phoenix Tailings, PlantSwitch, Posco, Pow.bio, Protein Evolution, REEtec, Rivalia Chemical, Samsara Eco, SiTration, Solugen, Sumitomo and Summit Nanotech, Synthego, Taiwan Bio-Manufacturing Corp. (TBMC), Teijin Limited, Twist Bioscience, Uluu, Van Heron Labs, Verde Bioresins, Versalis, Xampla and more....
• Market Forecasts and Data Analysis

This report is relevant for:

• Chemical industry executives and strategists
• Sustainability officers and environmental managers
• Investors and financial analysts
• R&D professionals
• Policy makers and regulatory bodies
• Environmental NGOs
• Academic researchers

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Table of Contents

1 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 51

• 1.1 The Need for a New Era in the Chemical Industry 51
• 1.2 Defining the New Era of Chemicals 53
• 1.3 Global Drivers and Trends 54
• 1.4 The Changing Landscape of the Chemical Industry 55
  • 1.4.1 Historical Context: From Coal to Oil to Renewables 55
  • 1.4.2 Current State of the Global Chemical Industry 56
  • 1.4.3 Environmental Challenges and Regulatory Pressures 58
  • 1.4.4 Shifting Consumer Demands and Market Dynamics 59
  • 1.4.5 The Role of Digitalization and Industry 4.0 60
• 1.5 Emerging and Transforming Markets in the New Era of Chemicals 61
  • 1.5.1 Sustainable Agriculture Chemicals 61
  • 1.5.2 Green Cosmetics and Personal Care 62
  • 1.5.3 Sustainable Packaging 63
  • 1.5.4 Eco-friendly Paints and Coatings 64
  • 1.5.5 Alternative Fuels and Lubricants 65
  • 1.5.6 Pharmaceuticals and Healthcare 66
  • 1.5.7 Water Treatment and Purification 67
  • 1.5.8 Carbon Capture and Utilization Products 67
  • 1.5.9 Advanced Materials for 3D Printing 67
  • 1.5.10 Sustainable Mining and Metallurgy 69

2 FEEDSTOCKS 70

• 2.1 Sustainable Feedstocks: The Foundation of the New Era 70
• 2.2 Overview of Sustainable Feedstock Options 72
• 2.3 Biomass as a Chemical Feedstock 73
  • 2.3.1 Types of Biomass and Their Chemical Compositions 73
  • 2.3.2 Pretreatment and Conversion Technologies 74
  • 2.3.3 Challenges in Scaling Up Biomass Utilization 76
• 2.4 CO2 as a Carbon Source 77
  • 2.4.1 CO2 Capture Technologies 77
  • 2.4.2 Chemical Conversion Pathways for CO2 79
  • 2.4.3 Economic and Technical Barriers to CO2 Utilization 82
• 2.5 Waste Valorization 83
  • 2.5.1 Municipal Solid Waste as a Feedstock 83
  • 2.5.2 Industrial Waste Streams and By-products 85
  • 2.5.3 Plastic Waste Recycling and Upcycling 86
• 2.6 Renewable Hydrogen 87
  • 2.6.1 Electrolysis Technologies 87
  • 2.6.2 Integration of Renewable Energy in Hydrogen Production 89
  • 2.6.3 Hydrogen's Role in Chemical Synthesis 90

3 GREEN CHEMISTRY PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS 91

• 3.1 The 12 Principles of Green Chemistry 91
• 3.2 Atom Economy and Step Economy in Synthesis 93
• 3.3 Solvent Reduction and Green Solvents 95
  • 3.3.1 Water as a Reaction Medium 95
  • 3.3.2 Ionic Liquids and Deep Eutectic Solvents 96
  • 3.3.3 Supercritical Fluids in Chemical Processes 97
• 3.4 Catalysis for Green Chemistry 101
  • 3.4.1 Biocatalysis and Enzyme Engineering 101
  • 3.4.2 Heterogeneous Catalysis Advancements 102
  • 3.4.3 Photocatalysis and Electrocatalysis 103
• 3.5 Green Metrics and Life Cycle Assessment in Chemistry 106

4 CIRCULAR ECONOMY IN THE CHEMICAL INDUSTRY 108

• 4.1 Principles of Circular Economy 108
• 4.2 Design for Circularity in Chemical Products 109
• 4.3 Chemical Recycling Technologies 110
  • 4.3.1 Applications 110
  • 4.3.2 Pyrolysis 111
    • 4.3.2.1 Non-catalytic 112
    • 4.3.2.2 Catalytic 113
      • 4.3.2.2.1 Polystyrene pyrolysis 116
      • 4.3.2.2.2 Pyrolysis for production of bio fuel 116
      • 4.3.2.2.3 Used tires pyrolysis 120
        • 4.3.2.2.3.1 Conversion to biofuel 121
      • 4.3.2.2.4 Co-pyrolysis of biomass and plastic wastes 122
    • 4.3.2.3 Companies and capacities 123
  • 4.3.3 Gasification 124
    • 4.3.3.1 Technology overview 124
      • 4.3.3.1.1 Syngas conversion to methanol 125
      • 4.3.3.1.2 Biomass gasification and syngas fermentation 129
      • 4.3.3.1.3 Biomass gasification and syngas thermochemical conversion 129
    • 4.3.3.2 Companies and capacities (current and planned) 130
  • 4.3.4 Dissolution 130
    • 4.3.4.1 Technology overview 130
    • 4.3.4.2 Companies and capacities (current and planned) 131
  • 4.3.5 Depolymerisation 132
    • 4.3.5.1 Hydrolysis 134
      • 4.3.5.1.1 Technology overview 134
    • 4.3.5.2 Enzymolysis 135
      • 4.3.5.2.1 Technology overview 135
    • 4.3.5.3 Methanolysis 136
      • 4.3.5.3.1 Technology overview 136
    • 4.3.5.4 Glycolysis 137
      • 4.3.5.4.1 Technology overview 137
    • 4.3.5.5 Aminolysis 140
      • 4.3.5.5.1 Technology overview 140
    • 4.3.5.6 Companies and capacities (current and planned) 140
  • 4.3.6 Other advanced chemical recycling technologies 141
    • 4.3.6.1 Hydrothermal cracking 141
    • 4.3.6.2 Pyrolysis with in-line reforming 142
    • 4.3.6.3 Microwave-assisted pyrolysis 143
    • 4.3.6.4 Plasma pyrolysis 143
    • 4.3.6.5 Plasma gasification 144
    • 4.3.6.6 Supercritical fluids 145
• 4.4 Upcycling of Chemical Waste 145
• 4.5 Circular Business Models in the Chemical Sector 146
• 4.6 Challenges and Opportunities in Implementing Circularity 147
  • 4.6.1 Companies 148

5 ELECTRIFICATION OF CHEMICAL PROCESSES 152

• 5.1 The Role of Renewable Electricity in Chemical Production 152
• 5.2 Electrochemical Synthesis 156
  • 5.2.1 Electroorganic Synthesis 156
  • 5.2.2 Electrochemical CO2 Reduction 158
  • 5.2.3 Electrochemical Nitrogen Fixation 159
• 5.3 Plasma Chemistry 160
• 5.4 Microwave-Assisted Chemistry 161
• 5.5 Integration of Power-to-X Technologies in Chemical Production 161

6 DIGITALIZATION AND INDUSTRY 4.0 IN CHEMISTRY 163

• 6.1 Big Data and Advanced Analytics in Chemical Research 163
• 6.2 Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning Applications 164
  • 6.2.1 In Silico Design of Molecules and Materials 164
  • 6.2.2 Process Optimization and Predictive Maintenance 165
  • 6.2.3 Automated Synthesis and High-Throughput Experimentation 167
• 6.3 Digital Twins in Chemical Plant Operations 168
• 6.4 Blockchain for Supply Chain Transparency and Traceability 170
• 6.5 Cybersecurity Challenges in the Digitalized Chemical Industry 171

7 ADVANCED MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGIES 172

• 7.1 Continuous Flow Chemistry 174
  • 7.1.1 Microreactors and Process Intensification 174
  • 7.1.2 Advantages in Pharmaceuticals and Fine Chemicals 175
  • 7.1.3 Challenges in Scale-up and Implementation 176
• 7.2 Modular and Distributed Manufacturing 178
• 7.3 3D Printing of Chemicals and Materials 180
  • 7.3.1 Direct Ink Writing and Reactive Printing 180
  • 7.3.2 Applications in Custom Synthesis and Formulation 181
• 7.4 Advanced Process Control and Real-time Monitoring 182
• 7.5 Flexible and Adaptable Production Systems 183

8 BIOREFINDING AND INDUSTRIAL BIOTECHNOLOGY 184

• 8.1 Biorefinery Concepts and Configurations 184
• 8.2 Lignocellulosic Biomass Processing 185
• 8.3 Algal Biorefineries 186
• 8.4 Upstream Processing 187
  • 8.4.1 Cell Culture 187
    • 8.4.1.1 Overview 187
    • 8.4.1.2 Types of Cell Culture Systems 187
    • 8.4.1.3 Factors Affecting Cell Culture Performance 188
    • 8.4.1.4 Advances in Cell Culture Technology 189
      • 8.4.1.4.1 Single-use systems 189
      • 8.4.1.4.2 Process analytical technology (PAT) 189
      • 8.4.1.4.3 Cell line development 190
• 8.5 Fermentation 190
  • 8.5.1 Overview 190
    • 8.5.1.1 Types of Fermentation Processes 190
    • 8.5.1.2 Factors Affecting Fermentation Performance 191
    • 8.5.1.3 Advances in Fermentation Technology 191
      • 8.5.1.3.1 High-cell-density fermentation 192
      • 8.5.1.3.2 Continuous processing 192
      • 8.5.1.3.3 Metabolic engineering 192
• 8.6 Downstream Processing 193
  • 8.6.1 Purification 193
    • 8.6.1.1 Overview 193
    • 8.6.1.2 Types of Purification Methods 193
      • 8.6.1.2.1 Factors Affecting Purification Performance 193
    • 8.6.1.3 Advances in Purification Technology 194
      • 8.6.1.3.1 Affinity chromatography 194
      • 8.6.1.3.2 Membrane chromatography 195
      • 8.6.1.3.3 Continuous chromatography 195
• 8.7 Formulation 196
  • 8.7.1 Overview 196
    • 8.7.1.1 Types of Formulation Methods 196
    • 8.7.1.2 Factors Affecting Formulation Performance 197
    • 8.7.1.3 Advances in Formulation Technology 197
      • 8.7.1.3.1 Controlled release 198
      • 8.7.1.3.2 Nanoparticle formulation 198
      • 8.7.1.3.3 3D printing 198
• 8.8 Bioprocess Development 198
  • 8.8.1 Scale-up 198
    • 8.8.1.1 Overview 198
    • 8.8.1.2 Factors Affecting Scale-up Performance 199
    • 8.8.1.3 Scale-up Strategies 200
  • 8.8.2 Optimization 200
    • 8.8.2.1 Overview 201
    • 8.8.2.2 Factors Affecting Optimization Performance 201
    • 8.8.2.3 Optimization Strategies 202
• 8.9 Analytical Methods 203
  • 8.9.1 Quality Control 203
    • 8.9.1.1 Overview 203
    • 8.9.1.2 Types of Quality Control Tests 203
    • 8.9.1.3 Factors Affecting Quality Control Performance 204
  • 8.9.2 Characterization 204
    • 8.9.2.1 Overview 205
    • 8.9.2.2 Types of Characterization Methods 205
    • 8.9.2.3 Factors Affecting Characterization Performance 206
• 8.10 Scale of Production 208
  • 8.10.1 Laboratory Scale 208
    • 8.10.1.1 Overview 208
    • 8.10.1.2 Scale and Equipment 208
    • 8.10.1.3 Advantages 209
    • 8.10.1.4 Disadvantages 209
  • 8.10.2 Pilot Scale 210
    • 8.10.2.1 Overview 210
    • 8.10.2.2 Scale and Equipment 210
    • 8.10.2.3 Advantages 211
    • 8.10.2.4 Disadvantages 211
  • 8.10.3 Commercial Scale 212
    • 8.10.3.1 Overview 212
    • 8.10.3.2 Scale and Equipment 212
    • 8.10.3.3 Advantages 213
    • 8.10.3.4 Disadvantages 213
• 8.11 Mode of Operation 214
  • 8.11.1 Batch Production 214
    • 8.11.1.1 Overview 214
    • 8.11.1.2 Advantages 215
    • 8.11.1.3 Disadvantages 215
    • 8.11.1.4 Applications 216
  • 8.11.2 Fed-batch Production 216
    • 8.11.2.1 Overview 216
    • 8.11.2.2 Advantages 217
    • 8.11.2.3 Disadvantages 217
    • 8.11.2.4 Applications 217
  • 8.11.3 Continuous Production 218
    • 8.11.3.1 Overview 218
    • 8.11.3.2 Advantages 218
    • 8.11.3.3 Disadvantages 218
    • 8.11.3.4 Applications 219
  • 8.11.4 Cell factories for biomanufacturing 219
  • 8.11.5 Perfusion Culture 221
    • 8.11.5.1 Overview 221
    • 8.11.5.2 Advantages 221
    • 8.11.5.3 Disadvantages 222
    • 8.11.5.4 Applications 222
  • 8.11.6 Other Modes of Operation 223
    • 8.11.6.1 Immobilized Cell Culture 223
    • 8.11.6.2 Two-Stage Production 223
    • 8.11.6.3 Hybrid Systems 223
• 8.12 Host Organisms 224

9 CO2 UTILIZATION TECHNOLOGIES 226

• 9.1 Overview 226
• 9.2 CO2 non-conversion and conversion technology 227
• 9.3 Carbon utilization business models 233
  • 9.3.1 Benefits of carbon utilization 234
  • 9.3.2 Market challenges 236
• 9.4 Co2 utilization pathways 237
• 9.5 Conversion processes 239
  • 9.5.1 Thermochemical 239
    • 9.5.1.1 Process overview 240
    • 9.5.1.2 Plasma-assisted CO2 conversion 242
  • 9.5.2 Electrochemical conversion of CO2 243
    • 9.5.2.1 Process overview 244
  • 9.5.3 Photocatalytic and photothermal catalytic conversion of CO2 247
  • 9.5.4 Catalytic conversion of CO2 247
  • 9.5.5 Biological conversion of CO2 247
  • 9.5.6 Copolymerization of CO2 251
  • 9.5.7 Mineral carbonation 253
• 9.6 CO2-derived products 258
  • 9.6.1 Fuels 258
    • 9.6.1.1 Overview 259
    • 9.6.1.2 Production routes 261
    • 9.6.1.3 CO₂ -fuels in road vehicles 262
    • 9.6.1.4 CO₂ -fuels in shipping 263
      • 9.6.1.5 CO₂ -fuels in aviation 263
    • 9.6.1.6 Power-to-methane 263
      • 9.6.1.6.1 Biological fermentation 264
      • 9.6.1.6.2 Costs 264
    • 9.6.1.7 Algae based biofuels 268
    • 9.6.1.8 CO₂-fuels from solar 269
    • 9.6.1.9 Companies 271
    • 9.6.1.10 Challenges 274
  • 9.6.2 Chemicals and polymers 274
    • 9.6.2.1 Polycarbonate from CO₂ 275
    • 9.6.2.2 Carbon nanostructures 276
    • 9.6.2.3 Scalability 278
    • 9.6.2.4 Applications 278
      • 9.6.2.4.1 Urea production 278
      • 9.6.2.4.2 CO₂-derived polymers 279
      • 9.6.2.4.3 Inert gas in semiconductor manufacturing 280
      • 9.6.2.4.4 Carbon nanotubes 280
    • 9.6.2.5 Companies 280
  • 9.6.3 Construction materials 282
    • 9.6.3.1 Overview 283
    • 9.6.3.2 CCUS technologies 286
    • 9.6.3.3 Carbonated aggregates 288
    • 9.6.3.4 Additives during mixing 290
    • 9.6.3.5 Concrete curing 291
    • 9.6.3.6 Costs 292
    • 9.6.3.7 Market trends and business models 292
    • 9.6.3.8 Companies 296
    • 9.6.3.9 Challenges 297
  • 9.6.4 CO2 Utilization in Biological Yield-Boosting 298
    • 9.6.4.1 Overview 298
    • 9.6.4.2 Applications 298
      • 9.6.4.2.1 Greenhouses 298
      • 9.6.4.2.2 Algae cultivation 298
        • 9.6.4.2.2.1 CO₂-enhanced algae cultivation: open systems 299
        • 9.6.4.2.2.2 CO₂-enhanced algae cultivation: closed systems 300
      • 9.6.4.2.3 Microbial conversion 301
      • 9.6.4.2.4 Food and feed production 303
    • 9.6.4.3 Companies 303
• 9.7 CO₂ Utilization in Enhanced Oil Recovery 304
  • 9.7.1 Overview 304
    • 9.7.1.1 Process 305
    • 9.7.1.2 CO₂ sources 306
  • 9.7.2 CO₂-EOR facilities and projects 306
  • 9.7.3 Challenges 308
• 9.8 Enhanced mineralization 308
  • 9.8.1 Advantages 308
  • 9.8.2 In situ and ex-situ mineralization 309
  • 9.8.3 Enhanced mineralization pathways 310
  • 9.8.4 Challenges 311

10 ADVANCED CATALYSTS FOR SUSTAINABLE CHEMISTRY 312

• 10.1 Overview of biocatalyst technology 312
  • 10.1.1 Biotransformations 313
  • 10.1.2 Cascade biocatalysis 313
  • 10.1.3 Co-factor recycling 313
  • 10.1.4 Immobilization 314
• 10.2 Types of biocatalysts 315
  • 10.2.1 Enzymes 316
  • 10.2.2 Feedstocks 318
  • 10.2.3 Protein/Enzyme Engineering 319
  • 10.2.4 Microorganisms 320
    • 10.2.4.1 Bacteria 321
    • 10.2.4.2 Fungi 321
    • 10.2.4.3 Yeast 322
    • 10.2.4.4 Archaea 324
  • 10.2.5 Engineered biocatalysts 325
    • 10.2.5.1 Directed Evolution 325
    • 10.2.5.2 Rational Design 326
    • 10.2.5.3 Semi-Rational Design 327
    • 10.2.5.4 Immobilization 328
    • 10.2.5.5 Fusion Proteins 328
  • 10.2.6 Other types 330
    • 10.2.6.1 Ribozymes 330
    • 10.2.6.2 DNAzymes 331
    • 10.2.6.3 Abzymes 332
    • 10.2.6.4 Nanozymes 333
    • 10.2.6.5 Organocatalysts 334
• 10.3 Production methods and processes 335
  • 10.3.1 Fermentation 336
  • 10.3.2 Recombinant DNA technology 339
  • 10.3.3 Cell-Free Protein Synthesis 340
  • 10.3.4 Extraction from Natural Sources 341
  • 10.3.5 Solid-State Fermentation 342
• 10.4 Emerging technologies and innovations in biocatalysis 343
  • 10.4.1 Synthetic biology and metabolic engineering 343
    • 10.4.1.1 Batch biomanufacturing 349
    • 10.4.1.2 Continuous biomanufacturing 350
    • 10.4.1.3 Fermentation Processes 351
    • 10.4.1.4 Cell-free synthesis 351
  • 10.4.2 Generative biology and Artificial Intelligence (AI) 354
    • 10.4.2.1 Molecular Dynamics Simulations 354
    • 10.4.2.2 Quantum Mechanical Calculations 355
    • 10.4.2.3 Systems Biology Modeling 356
    • 10.4.2.4 Metabolic Engineering Modeling 356
  • 10.4.3 Genome engineering 358
  • 10.4.4 Immobilization and encapsulation techniques 360
  • 10.4.5 Biomimetics 361
  • 10.4.6 Nanoparticle-based biocatalysts 362
  • 10.4.7 Biocatalytic cascades and multi-enzyme systems 364
  • 10.4.8 Microfluidics 365
• 10.5 Companies 368

11 SYNTHETIC BIOLOGY AND METABOLIC ENGINEERING 372

• 11.1 Metabolic engineering 372
• 11.2 Gene and DNA synthesis 376
• 11.3 Gene Synthesis and Assembly 377
• 11.4 Genome engineering 379
  • 11.4.1 CRISPR 379
    • 11.4.1.1 CRISPR/Cas9-modified biosynthetic pathways 380
    • 11.4.1.2 TALENs 381
    • 11.4.1.3 ZFNs 381
• 11.5 Protein/Enzyme Engineering 383
• 11.6 Synthetic genomics 385
  • 11.6.1 Principles of Synthetic Genomics 385
  • 11.6.2 Synthetic Chromosomes and Genomes 386
• 11.7 Strain construction and optimization 388
• 11.8 Smart bioprocessing 388
• 11.9 Chassis organisms 389
• 11.10 Biomimetics 391
• 11.11 Sustainable materials 392
• 11.12 Robotics and automation 392
  • 11.12.1 Robotic cloud laboratories 393
  • 11.12.2 Automating organism design 393
  • 11.12.3 Artificial intelligence and machine learning 394
• 11.13 Bioinformatics and computational tools 394
  • 11.13.1 Role of Bioinformatics in Synthetic Biology 394
  • 11.13.2 Computational Tools for Design and Analysis 395
• 11.14 Xenobiology and expanded genetic alphabets 398
• 11.15 Biosensors and bioelectronics 398
• 11.16 Feedstocks 399
  • 11.16.1 C1 feedstocks 403
    • 11.16.1.1 Advantages 403
    • 11.16.1.2 Pathways 404
    • 11.16.1.3 Challenges 405
    • 11.16.1.4 Non-methane C1 feedstocks 405
    • 11.16.1.5 Gas fermentation 406
  • 11.16.2 C2 feedstocks 406
  • 11.16.3 Biological conversion of CO2 407
  • 11.16.4 Food processing wastes 410
    • 11.16.4.1 Syngas 411
    • 11.16.4.2 Glycerol 411
    • 11.16.4.3 Methane 411
    • 11.16.4.4 Municipal solid wastes 415
    • 11.16.4.5 Plastic wastes 415
    • 11.16.4.6 Plant oils 416
    • 11.16.4.7 Starch 416
    • 11.16.4.8 Sugars 417
    • 11.16.4.9 Used cooking oils 418
    • 11.16.4.10 Green hydrogen production 419
    • 11.16.4.11 Blue hydrogen production 420
  • 11.16.5 Marine biotechnology 422
    • 11.16.5.1 Cyanobacteria 424
    • 11.16.5.2 Macroalgae 425
• 11.17 Companies 425

12 GREEN SOLVENTS AND ALTERNATIVE REACTION MEDIA 428

• 12.1 Bio-based Solvents 428
• 12.2 Switchable Solvents 430
• 12.3 Deep Eutectic Solvents (DES) 431
• 12.4 Supercritical Fluids in Industrial Applications 433
• 12.5 Solvent-free Reactions and Mechanochemistry 435
• 12.6 Solvent Selection Tools and Frameworks 436
• 12.7 Companies 436

13 WASTE VALORIZATION AND RESOURCE RECOVERY 437

• 13.1 Municipal Solid Waste to Chemicals 437
• 13.2 Agricultural and Food Waste Valorization 439
• 13.3 Critical Material Extraction Technology 441
  • 13.3.1 Recovery of critical materials from secondary sources (e.g., end-of-life products, industrial waste) 445
  • 13.3.2 Critical rare-earth element recovery from secondary sources 445
  • 13.3.3 Li-ion battery technology metal recovery 446
  • 13.3.4 Critical semiconductor materials recovery 448
  • 13.3.5 Critical semiconductor materials recovery 448
  • 13.3.6 Critical platinum group metal recovery 450
  • 13.3.7 Critical platinum Group metal recovery 451
• 13.4 Wastewater Treatment and Resource Recovery 453
  • 13.4.1 Bio-based Flocculants and Coagulants 453
  • 13.4.2 Green Oxidants and Disinfectants 454
  • 13.4.3 Sustainable Membrane Materials 455
    • 13.4.3.1 Bio-based polymer membranes 455
    • 13.4.3.2 Ceramic membranes from recycled materials 456
    • 13.4.3.3 Self-healing membranes 457
  • 13.4.4 Advanced Adsorbents for Contaminant Removal 458
    • 13.4.4.1 Biochar 459
    • 13.4.4.2 Activated carbon from waste biomass 460
    • 13.4.4.3 Green zeolites and MOFs (Metal-Organic Frameworks) 461
  • 13.4.5 Nutrient Recovery Technologies 462
  • 13.4.6 Resource Recovery from Industrial Wastewater 464
  • 13.4.7 Bioelectrochemical Systems 465
  • 13.4.8 Green Solvents in Extraction Processes 467
  • 13.4.9 Photocatalytic Materials 469
  • 13.4.10 Biodegradable Chelating Agents 471
  • 13.4.11 Biocatalysts for Wastewater Treatment 473
  • 13.4.12 Advanced Adsorption Materials 475
  • 13.4.13 Sustainable pH Adjustment Chemicals 477
• 13.5 Mining Waste Valorization 478
  • 13.5.1 Bioleaching and Biooxidation 478
  • 13.5.2 Green Lixiviants for Metal Extraction 480
  • 13.5.3 Phytomining and Phytoremediation 481
  • 13.5.4 Sustainable Flotation Chemicals 483
  • 13.5.5 Electrochemical Recovery Methods 485
  • 13.5.6 Geopolymers and Mine Tailings Utilization 487
  • 13.5.7 Critical Element Recovery 489
  • 13.5.8 CO2 Mineralization 491
  • 13.5.9 Sustainable Remediation Technologies 494
  • 13.5.10 Waste-to-Energy Technologies 495
  • 13.5.11 Advanced Separation Techniques 497
• 13.6 Companies 499

14 ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND RENEWABLE ENERGY INTEGRATION 504

• 14.1 Energy Efficiency Measures in Chemical Plants 504
• 14.2 Heat Recovery and Pinch Analysis 507
• 14.3 Renewable Energy Sources in Chemical Production 509
• 14.4 Energy Storage Technologies for Process Industries 511
• 14.5 Combined Heat and Power (CHP) Systems 513
• 14.6 Industrial Symbiosis and Energy Integration 515

15 SAFETY AND SUSTAINABILITY ASSESSMENT 517

• 15.1 Green Chemistry Metrics and Sustainability Indicators 517
• 15.2 Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) in Chemical Processes 519
• 15.3 Safety by Design Principles 521
• 15.4 Risk Assessment and Management in New Chemical Technologies 523
• 15.5 Environmental Impact Assessment 525
• 15.6 Social and Ethical Considerations in the New Era of Chemicals 527

16 REGULATIONS AND POLICY 529

• 16.1 Global Chemical Regulations and Their Evolution 529
• 16.2 Environmental Policies Driving Sustainable Chemistry 531
• 16.3 Incentives and Support Mechanisms for Green Chemistry 533
• 16.4 Challenges in Regulating Emerging Technologies 534
• 16.5 International Cooperation and Harmonization Efforts 537
• 16.6 The Role of Industry Associations and Standardization Bodies 539

17 MARKETS AND PRODUCTS 541

• 17.1 Sustainable Materials and Polymers 541
  • 17.1.1 Bioplastics and Biodegradable Polymers 542
    • 17.1.1.1 Polylactic acid (Bio-PLA) 542
      • 17.1.1.1.1 Overview 542
      • 17.1.1.1.2 Properties 543
      • 17.1.1.1.3 Applications 543
      • 17.1.1.1.4 Advantages 544
      • 17.1.1.1.5 Commercial examples 545
    • 17.1.1.2 Polyethylene terephthalate (Bio-PET) 545
      • 17.1.1.2.1 Overview 545
      • 17.1.1.2.2 Properties 546
      • 17.1.1.2.3 Applications 546
      • 17.1.1.2.4 Commercial examples 547
    • 17.1.1.3 Polytrimethylene terephthalate (Bio-PTT) 547
      • 17.1.1.3.1 Overview 547
      • 17.1.1.3.2 Production Process 547
      • 17.1.1.3.3 Properties 548
      • 17.1.1.3.4 Applications 548
      • 17.1.1.3.5 Commercial examples 549
    • 17.1.1.4 Polyethylene furanoate (Bio-PEF) 549
      • 17.1.1.4.1 Overview 549
      • 17.1.1.4.2 Properties 549
      • 17.1.1.4.3 Applications 550
      • 17.1.1.4.4 Commercial examples 550
    • 17.1.1.5 Bio-PA 550
      • 17.1.1.5.1 Overview 550
      • 17.1.1.5.2 Properties 551
      • 17.1.1.5.3 Commercial examples 551
    • 17.1.1.6 Poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) (Bio-PBAT)- Aliphatic aromatic copolyesters 551
      • 17.1.1.6.1 Overview 551
      • 17.1.1.6.2 Properties 552
      • 17.1.1.6.3 Applications 552
      • 17.1.1.6.4 Commercial examples 553
    • 17.1.1.7 Polybutylene succinate (PBS) and copolymers 553
      • 17.1.1.7.1 Overview 553
      • 17.1.1.7.2 Properties 553
      • 17.1.1.7.3 Applications 554
      • 17.1.1.7.4 Commercial examples 554
    • 17.1.1.8 Polypropylene (Bio-PP) 554
      • 17.1.1.8.1 Overview 554
      • 17.1.1.8.2 Properties 555
      • 17.1.1.8.3 Applications 555
      • 17.1.1.8.4 Commercial examples 555
    • 17.1.1.9 Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) 556
      • 17.1.1.9.1 Properties 556
      • 17.1.1.9.2 Applications 556
      • 17.1.1.9.3 Commercial examples 558
    • 17.1.1.10 Starch-based blends 558
      • 17.1.1.10.1 Overview 558
      • 17.1.1.10.2 Properties 559
      • 17.1.1.10.3 Applications 559
      • 17.1.1.10.4 Commercial examples 559
    • 17.1.1.11 Cellulose 560
      • 17.1.1.11.1 Feedstocks 560
    • 17.1.1.12 Microfibrillated cellulose (MFC) 560
      • 17.1.1.12.1 Properties 560
    • 17.1.1.13 Nanocellulose 561
      • 17.1.1.13.1 Cellulose nanocrystals 561
        • 17.1.1.13.1.1 Applications 562
        • 17.1.1.13.2 Cellulose nanofibers 563
          • 17.1.1.13.2.1 Applications 564
            • 17.1.1.13.2.1.1 Reinforcement and barrier 569
            • 17.1.1.13.2.1.2 Biodegradable food packaging foil and films 569
            • 17.1.1.13.2.1.3 Paperboard coatings 570
        • 17.1.1.13.3 Bacterial Nanocellulose (BNC) 570
          • 17.1.1.13.3.1 Applications in packaging 573
          • 17.1.1.13.3.2 Commercial examples 574
    • 17.1.1.14 Protein-based bioplastics in packaging 575
      • 17.1.1.14.1 Feedstocks 575
      • 17.1.1.14.2 Commercial examples 577
    • 17.1.1.15 Alginate 577
      • 17.1.1.15.1 Overview 577
      • 17.1.1.15.2 Production 579
      • 17.1.1.15.3 Applications 579
      • 17.1.1.15.4 Producers 579
    • 17.1.1.16 Mycelium 580
      • 17.1.1.16.1 Overview 580
      • 17.1.1.16.2 Applications 581
      • 17.1.1.16.3 Commercial examples 581
    • 17.1.1.17 Chitosan 582
      • 17.1.1.17.1 Overview 582
      • 17.1.1.17.2 Applications 583
      • 17.1.1.17.3 Commercial examples 583
    • 17.1.1.18 Bio-naphtha 584
      • 17.1.1.18.1 Overview 584
      • 17.1.1.18.2 Markets and applications 585
      • 17.1.1.18.3 Commercial examples 587
  • 17.1.2 Recycled and Upcycled Plastics 588
  • 17.1.3 High-Performance Bio-based Materials 588
  • 17.1.4 Companies 590
• 17.2 Sustainable Agriculture Chemicals 593
  • 17.2.1 Overview 593
  • 17.2.2 Biopesticides and Biocontrol Agents 593
  • 17.2.3 Precision Agriculture Chemicals 595
  • 17.2.4 Controlled-Release Fertilizers 597
  • 17.2.5 Biostimulants 597
  • 17.2.6 Microbials 599
  • 17.2.7 Biochemicals 603
  • 17.2.8 Semiochemicals 605
  • 17.2.9 Natural biostimulants and pesticides 607
  • 17.2.10 Companies 608
• 17.3 Sustainable Construction Materials 611
  • 17.3.1 Established bio-based construction materials 611
  • 17.3.2 Hemp-based Materials 614
    • 17.3.2.1 Hemp Concrete (Hempcrete) 614
    • 17.3.2.2 Hemp Fiberboard 614
    • 17.3.2.3 Hemp Insulation 615
  • 17.3.3 Mycelium-based Materials 615
    • 17.3.3.1 Insulation 617
    • 17.3.3.2 Structural Elements 617
    • 17.3.3.3 Acoustic Panels 617
    • 17.3.3.4 Decorative Elements 617
  • 17.3.4 Sustainable Concrete and Cement Alternatives 618
    • 17.3.4.1 Geopolymer Concrete 618
    • 17.3.4.2 Recycled Aggregate Concrete 618
    • 17.3.4.3 Lime-Based Materials 619
    • 17.3.4.4 Self-healing concrete 619
      • 17.3.4.4.1 Bioconcrete 621
      • 17.3.4.4.2 Fiber concrete 623
    • 17.3.4.5 Microalgae biocement 623
    • 17.3.4.6 Carbon-negative concrete 625
    • 17.3.4.7 Biomineral binders 625
  • 17.3.5 Natural Fiber Composites 626
    • 17.3.5.1 Types of Natural Fibers 626
    • 17.3.5.2 Properties 627
    • 17.3.5.3 Applications in Construction 627
  • 17.3.6 Cellulose nanofibers 628
    • 17.3.6.1 Sandwich composites 628
    • 17.3.6.2 Cement additives 628
    • 17.3.6.3 Pump primers 629
    • 17.3.6.4 Insulation materials 629
  • 17.3.7 Sustainable Insulation Materials 630
    • 17.3.7.1 Types of sustainable insulation materials 630
    • 17.3.7.2 Biobased and sustainable aerogels (bio-aerogels) 631
  • 17.3.8 Companies 633
• 17.4 Green Cosmetics and Personal Care 637
  • 17.4.1 Natural and Bio-based Ingredients 637
  • 17.4.2 Microplastic Alternatives 639
    • 17.4.2.1 Natural hard materials 641
    • 17.4.2.2 Natural polymers 642
    • 17.4.2.3 Polysaccharides 642
      • 17.4.2.3.1 Starch 642
        • 17.4.2.3.1.1 Applications and commercial status 642
        • 17.4.2.3.1.2 Companies 643
      • 17.4.2.3.2 Cellulose 643
        • 17.4.2.3.2.1 Microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) 644
          • 17.4.2.3.2.1.1 Applications and commercial status 644
          • 17.4.2.3.2.1.2 Companies 644
        • 17.4.2.3.2.2 Regenerated cellulose microspheres 644
          • 17.4.2.3.2.2.1 Applications and commercial status 644
          • 17.4.2.3.2.2.2 Companies 645
        • 17.4.2.3.2.3 Cellulose nanocrystals 645
          • 17.4.2.3.2.3.1 Applications and commercial status 646
          • 17.4.2.3.2.3.2 Companies 646
        • 17.4.2.3.2.4 Bacterial nanocellulose (BNC) 647
          • 17.4.2.3.2.4.1 Companies 647
      • 17.4.2.3.3 Chitin 648
        • 17.4.2.3.3.1 Applications and commercial status 648
        • 17.4.2.3.3.2 Companies 648
    • 17.4.2.4 Proteins 648
      • 17.4.2.4.1 Collagen/Gelatin 649
        • 17.4.2.4.1.1 Applications and commercial status 649
      • 17.4.2.4.2 Casein 649
        • 17.4.2.4.2.1 Applications and commercial status 649
    • 17.4.2.5 Polyesters 649
      • 17.4.2.5.1 Polyhydroxyalkanoates 649
        • 17.4.2.5.1.1 Applications and commercial status 651
        • 17.4.2.5.1.2 Companies 651
      • 17.4.2.5.2 Polylactic acid 653
        • 17.4.2.5.2.1 Applications and commercial status 654
        • 17.4.2.5.2.2 Companies 654
    • 17.4.2.6 Other natural polymers 655
      • 17.4.2.6.1 Lignin 655
        • 17.4.2.6.1.1 Description 655
        • 17.4.2.6.1.2 Applications and commercial status 657
        • 17.4.2.6.1.3 Companies 658
      • 17.4.2.6.2 Alginate 660
        • 17.4.2.6.2.1 Applications and commercial status 660
        • 17.4.2.6.2.2 Companies 661
  • 17.4.3 Waterless Formulations 662
  • 17.4.4 Companies 665
• 17.5 Sustainable Packaging 669
  • 17.5.1 Paper and board packaging 669
  • 17.5.2 Food packaging 669
    • 17.5.2.1 Bio-Based films and trays 670
    • 17.5.2.2 Bio-Based pouches and bags 671
    • 17.5.2.3 Bio-Based textiles and nets 671
    • 17.5.2.4 Bioadhesives 671
      • 17.5.2.4.1 Starch 672
      • 17.5.2.4.2 Cellulose 672
      • 17.5.2.4.3 Protein-Based 673
    • 17.5.2.5 Barrier coatings and films 673
      • 17.5.2.5.1 Polysaccharides 674
        • 17.5.2.5.1.1 Chitin 674
        • 17.5.2.5.1.2 Chitosan 675
        • 17.5.2.5.1.3 Starch 675
      • 17.5.2.5.2 Poly(lactic acid) (PLA) 675
      • 17.5.2.5.3 Poly(butylene Succinate) 675
      • 17.5.2.5.4 Functional Lipid and Proteins Based Coatings 675
    • 17.5.2.6 Active and Smart Food Packaging 676
      • 17.5.2.6.1 Active Materials and Packaging Systems 676
      • 17.5.2.6.2 Intelligent and Smart Food Packaging 677
    • 17.5.2.7 Antimicrobial films and agents 678
      • 17.5.2.7.1 Natural 679
      • 17.5.2.7.2 Inorganic nanoparticles 679
      • 17.5.2.7.3 Biopolymers 680
    • 17.5.2.8 Bio-based Inks and Dyes 680
    • 17.5.2.9 Edible films and coatings 681
      • 17.5.2.9.1 Overview 681
      • 17.5.2.9.2 Commercial examples 683
    • 17.5.2.10 Types of bio-based coatings and films in packaging 684
      • 17.5.2.10.1 Polyurethane coatings 684
        • 17.5.2.10.1.1 Properties 684
        • 17.5.2.10.1.2 Bio-based polyurethane coatings 685
        • 17.5.2.10.1.3 Products 686
      • 17.5.2.10.2 Acrylate resins 687
        • 17.5.2.10.2.1 Properties 687
        • 17.5.2.10.2.2 Bio-based acrylates 687
        • 17.5.2.10.2.3 Products 688
      • 17.5.2.10.3 Polylactic acid (Bio-PLA) 688
        • 17.5.2.10.3.1 Properties 690
        • 17.5.2.10.3.2 Bio-PLA coatings and films 690
      • 17.5.2.10.4 Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) coatings 691
      • 17.5.2.10.5 Cellulose coatings and films 692
        • 17.5.2.10.5.1 Microfibrillated cellulose (MFC) 692
        • 17.5.2.10.5.2 Cellulose nanofibers 693
          • 17.5.2.10.5.2.1 Properties 693
          • 17.5.2.10.5.2.2 Product developers 695
      • 17.5.2.10.6 Lignin coatings 697
      • 17.5.2.10.7 Protein-based biomaterials for coatings 697
        • 17.5.2.10.7.1 Plant derived proteins 698
        • 17.5.2.10.7.2 Animal origin proteins 698
  • 17.5.3 Carbon capture derived materials for packaging 699
    • 17.5.3.1 Benefits of carbon utilization for plastics feedstocks 700
    • 17.5.3.2 CO₂-derived polymers and plastics 702
    • 17.5.3.3 CO2 utilization products 703
  • 17.5.4 Companies 705
• 17.6 Eco-friendly Paints and Coatings 709
  • 17.6.1 UV-cure 710
  • 17.6.2 Waterborne coatings 710
  • 17.6.3 Treatments with less or no solvents 711
  • 17.6.4 Hyperbranched polymers for coatings 711
  • 17.6.5 Powder coatings 711
  • 17.6.6 High solid (HS) coatings 713
  • 17.6.7 Use of bio-based materials in coatings 713
    • 17.6.7.1 Biopolymers 713
    • 17.6.7.2 Coatings based on agricultural waste 714
    • 17.6.7.3 Vegetable oils and fatty acids 714
    • 17.6.7.4 Proteins 714
    • 17.6.7.5 Cellulose 715
    • 17.6.7.6 Plant-Based wax coatings 716
  • 17.6.8 Barrier coatings 717
    • 17.6.8.1 Polysaccharides 719
      • 17.6.8.1.1 Chitin 719
      • 17.6.8.1.2 Chitosan 719
      • 17.6.8.1.3 Starch 719
    • 17.6.8.2 Poly(lactic acid) (PLA) 720
    • 17.6.8.3 Poly(butylene Succinate 720
    • 17.6.8.4 Functional Lipid and Proteins Based Coatings 720
  • 17.6.9 Alkyd coatings 721
    • 17.6.9.1 Alkyd resin properties 721
    • 17.6.9.2 Bio-based alkyd coatings 722
    • 17.6.9.3 Products 724
  • 17.6.10 Polyurethane coatings 725
    • 17.6.10.1 Properties 725
    • 17.6.10.2 Bio-based polyurethane coatings 726
      • 17.6.10.2.1 Bio-based polyols 726
      • 17.6.10.2.2 Non-isocyanate polyurethane (NIPU) 727
    • 17.6.10.3 Products 727
  • 17.6.11 Epoxy coatings 728
    • 17.6.11.1 Properties 728
    • 17.6.11.2 Bio-based epoxy coatings 729
    • 17.6.11.3 Products 730
  • 17.6.12 Acrylate resins 731
    • 17.6.12.1 Properties 731
    • 17.6.12.2 Bio-based acrylates 732
    • 17.6.12.3 Products 732
  • 17.6.13 Polylactic acid (Bio-PLA) 733
    • 17.6.13.1 Bio-PLA coatings and films 735
  • 17.6.14 Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) 735
  • 17.6.15 Microfibrillated cellulose (MFC) 736
  • 17.6.16 Cellulose nanofibers 737
  • 17.6.17 Cellulose nanocrystals 741
  • 17.6.18 Bacterial Nanocellulose (BNC) 742
  • 17.6.19 Rosins 742
  • 17.6.20 Bio-based carbon black 743
    • 17.6.20.1 Lignin-based 743
    • 17.6.20.2 Algae-based 743
  • 17.6.21 Lignin 743
  • 17.6.22 Antimicrobial films and agents 744
    • 17.6.22.1 Natural 745
    • 17.6.22.2 Inorganic nanoparticles 746
    • 17.6.22.3 Biopolymers 746
  • 17.6.23 Nanocoatings 747
  • 17.6.24 Protein-based biomaterials for coatings 748
    • 17.6.24.1 Plant derived proteins 748
    • 17.6.24.2 Animal origin proteins 749
  • 17.6.25 Algal coatings 750
  • 17.6.26 Polypeptides 753
  • 17.6.27 Companies 755
• 17.7 Green Electronics 759
  • 17.7.1 Conventional electronics manufacturing 759
  • 17.7.2 Benefits of Green Electronics manufacturing 759
  • 17.7.3 Challenges in adopting Green Electronics manufacturing 761
  • 17.7.4 Green Electronics Manufacturing 761
  • 17.7.5 Sustainability in PCB manufacturing 763
    • 17.7.5.1 Sustainable cleaning of PCBs 763
  • 17.7.6 Design of PCBs for sustainability 764
    • 17.7.6.1 Rigid 766
    • 17.7.6.2 Flexible 766
    • 17.7.6.3 Additive manufacturing 767
    • 17.7.6.4 In-mold elctronics (IME) 768
  • 17.7.7 Materials 769
    • 17.7.7.1 Metal cores 769
    • 17.7.7.2 Recycled laminates 769
    • 17.7.7.3 Conductive inks 769
    • 17.7.7.4 Green and lead-free solder 772
    • 17.7.7.5 Biodegradable substrates 773
      • 17.7.7.5.1 Bacterial Cellulose 773
      • 17.7.7.5.2 Mycelium 774
      • 17.7.7.5.3 Lignin 776
      • 17.7.7.5.4 Cellulose Nanofibers 779
      • 17.7.7.5.5 Soy Protein 782
      • 17.7.7.5.6 Algae 782
      • 17.7.7.5.7 PHAs 783
    • 17.7.7.6 Biobased inks 784
  • 17.7.8 Substrates 784
    • 17.7.8.1 Halogen-free FR4 784
      • 17.7.8.1.1 FR4 limitations 784
      • 17.7.8.1.2 FR4 alternatives 786
      • 17.7.8.1.3 Bio-Polyimide 786
    • 17.7.8.2 Metal-core PCBs 788
    • 17.7.8.3 Biobased PCBs 788
      • 17.7.8.3.1 Flexible (bio) polyimide PCBs 789
      • 17.7.8.3.2 Recent commercial activity 790
    • 17.7.8.4 Paper-based PCBs 791
    • 17.7.8.5 PCBs without solder mask 791
    • 17.7.8.6 Thinner dielectrics 792
    • 17.7.8.7 Recycled plastic substrates 792
    • 17.7.8.8 Flexible substrates 792
  • 17.7.9 Sustainable patterning and metallization in electronics manufacturing 793
    • 17.7.9.1 Introduction 793
    • 17.7.9.2 Issues with sustainability 793
    • 17.7.9.3 Regeneration and reuse of etching chemicals 794
    • 17.7.9.4 Transition from Wet to Dry phase patterning 795
    • 17.7.9.5 Print-and-plate 795
    • 17.7.9.6 Approaches 796
      • 17.7.9.6.1 Direct Printed Electronics 796
      • 17.7.9.6.2 Photonic Sintering 798
      • 17.7.9.6.3 Biometallization 798
      • 17.7.9.6.4 Plating Resist Alternatives 799
      • 17.7.9.6.5 Laser-Induced Forward Transfer 800
      • 17.7.9.6.6 Electrohydrodynamic Printing 802
      • 17.7.9.6.7 Electrically conductive adhesives (ECAs 802
      • 17.7.9.6.8 Green electroless plating 804
      • 17.7.9.6.9 Smart Masking 805
      • 17.7.9.6.10 Component Integration 805
      • 17.7.9.6.11 Bio-inspired material deposition 806
      • 17.7.9.6.12 Multi-material jetting 806
      • 17.7.9.6.13 Vacuumless deposition 808
      • 17.7.9.6.14 Upcycling waste streams 808
  • 17.7.10 Sustainable attachment and integration of components 809
    • 17.7.10.1 Conventional component attachment materials 809
    • 17.7.10.2 Materials 810
      • 17.7.10.2.1 Conductive adhesives 810
      • 17.7.10.2.2 Biodegradable adhesives 810
      • 17.7.10.2.3 Magnets 811
      • 17.7.10.2.4 Bio-based solders 811
      • 17.7.10.2.5 Bio-derived solders 811
      • 17.7.10.2.6 Recycled plastics 812
      • 17.7.10.2.7 Nano adhesives 812
      • 17.7.10.2.8 Shape memory polymers 812
      • 17.7.10.2.9 Photo-reversible polymers 814
      • 17.7.10.2.10 Conductive biopolymers 815
    • 17.7.10.3 Processes 815
      • 17.7.10.3.1 Traditional thermal processing methods 816
      • 17.7.10.3.2 Low temperature solder 816
      • 17.7.10.3.3 Reflow soldering 819
      • 17.7.10.3.4 Induction soldering 820
      • 17.7.10.3.5 UV curing 821
      • 17.7.10.3.6 Near-infrared (NIR) radiation curing 821
      • 17.7.10.3.7 Photonic sintering/curing 822
      • 17.7.10.3.8 Hybrid integration 822
  • 17.7.11 Sustainable integrated circuits 823
    • 17.7.11.1 IC manufacturing 823
    • 17.7.11.2 Sustainable IC manufacturing 824
    • 17.7.11.3 Wafer production 824
      • 17.7.11.3.1 Silicon 825
      • 17.7.11.3.2 Gallium nitride ICs 825
      • 17.7.11.3.3 Flexible ICs 825
      • 17.7.11.3.4 Fully printed organic ICs 826
    • 17.7.11.4 Oxidation methods 827
      • 17.7.11.4.1 Sustainable oxidation 827
      • 17.7.11.4.2 Metal oxides 828
      • 17.7.11.4.3 Recycling 829
      • 17.7.11.4.4 Thin gate oxide layers 829
    • 17.7.11.5 Patterning and doping 830
      • 17.7.11.5.1 Processes 830
        • 17.7.11.5.1.1 Wet etching 830
        • 17.7.11.5.1.2 Dry plasma etching 830
        • 17.7.11.5.1.3 Lift-off patterning 831
        • 17.7.11.5.1.4 Surface doping 831
    • 17.7.11.6 Metallization 832
      • 17.7.11.6.1 Evaporation 832
      • 17.7.11.6.2 Plating 833
      • 17.7.11.6.3 Printing 833
        • 17.7.11.6.3.1 Printed metal gates for organic thin film transistors 833
      • 17.7.11.6.4 Physical vapour deposition (PVD) 834
  • 17.7.12 End of life 835
    • 17.7.12.1 Hazardous waste 835
    • 17.7.12.2 Emissions 836
    • 17.7.12.3 Water Usage 837
    • 17.7.12.4 Recycling 838
      • 17.7.12.4.1 Mechanical recycling 839
      • 17.7.12.4.2 Electro-Mechanical Separation 840
      • 17.7.12.4.3 Chemical Recycling 840
      • 17.7.12.4.4 Electrochemical Processes 841
      • 17.7.12.4.5 Thermal Recycling 841
  • 17.7.13 Green Certification 842
  • 17.7.14 Companies 843
• 17.8 Sustainable Textiles and Fibers 845
  • 17.8.1 Types of bio-based fibres 845
    • 17.8.1.1 Natural fibres 847
    • 17.8.1.2 Main-made bio-based fibres 849
  • 17.8.2 Bio-based synthetics 850
  • 17.8.3 Recyclability of bio-based fibres 851
  • 17.8.4 Lyocell 851
  • 17.8.5 Bacterial cellulose 852
  • 17.8.6 Algae textiles 852
  • 17.8.7 Bio-based leather 853
    • 17.8.7.1 Properties of bio-based leathers 857
      • 17.8.7.1.1 Tear strength. 858
      • 17.8.7.1.2 Tensile strength 858
      • 17.8.7.1.3 Bally flexing 858
    • 17.8.7.2 Comparison with conventional leathers 859
    • 17.8.7.3 Comparative analysis of bio-based leathers 862
    • 17.8.7.4 Plant-based leather 863
      • 17.8.7.4.1 Overview 863
      • 17.8.7.4.2 Production processes 863
        • 17.8.7.4.2.1 Feedstocks 864
        • 17.8.7.4.2.1 Agriculture Residues 864
        • 17.8.7.4.2.2 Food Processing Waste 864
        • 17.8.7.4.2.3 Invasive Plants 864
        • 17.8.7.4.2.4 Culture-Grown Inputs 865
        • 17.8.7.4.2.5 Textile-Based 865
        • 17.8.7.4.2.6 Bio-Composite 866
      • 17.8.7.4.3 Products 866
      • 17.8.7.4.4 Market players 867
    • 17.8.7.5 Mycelium leather 869
      • 17.8.7.5.1 Overview 869
      • 17.8.7.5.2 Production process 872
        • 17.8.7.5.2.1 Growth conditions 872
        • 17.8.7.5.2.2 Tanning Mycelium Leather 873
        • 17.8.7.5.2.3 Dyeing Mycelium Leather 873
      • 17.8.7.5.3 Products 874
      • 17.8.7.5.4 Market players 874
    • 17.8.7.6 Microbial leather 875
      • 17.8.7.6.1 Overview 875
      • 17.8.7.6.2 Production process 875
      • 17.8.7.6.3 Fermentation conditions 876
      • 17.8.7.6.4 Harvesting 877
      • 17.8.7.6.5 Products 878
      • 17.8.7.6.6 Market players 880
    • 17.8.7.7 Lab grown leather 881
      • 17.8.7.7.1 Overview 881
      • 17.8.7.7.2 Production process 882
      • 17.8.7.7.3 Products 883
      • 17.8.7.7.4 Market players 883
    • 17.8.7.8 Protein-based leather 884
      • 17.8.7.8.1 Overview 884
      • 17.8.7.8.2 Production process 885
      • 17.8.7.8.3 Commercial activity 885
    • 17.8.7.9 Sustainable textiles coatings and dyes 886
      • 17.8.7.9.1 Overview 886
        • 17.8.7.9.1.1 Coatings 886
        • 17.8.7.9.1.2 Dyes 887
      • 17.8.7.9.2 Commercial activity 888
  • 17.8.8 Companies 889
• 17.9 Alternative Fuels and Lubricants 892
  • 17.9.1 Biofuels and Synthetic Fuels 892
  • 17.9.2 Biodiesel 892
    • 17.9.2.1 Biodiesel by generation 894
    • 17.9.2.2 Production of biodiesel and other biofuels 895
      • 17.9.2.2.1 Pyrolysis of biomass 896
      • 17.9.2.2.2 Vegetable oil transesterification 899
      • 17.9.2.2.3 Vegetable oil hydrogenation (HVO) 900
        • 17.9.2.2.3.1 Production process 901
      • 17.9.2.2.4 Biodiesel from tall oil 902
      • 17.9.2.2.5 Fischer-Tropsch BioDiesel 902
      • 17.9.2.2.6 Hydrothermal liquefaction of biomass 904
      • 17.9.2.2.7 CO2 capture and Fischer-Tropsch (FT) 905
      • 17.9.2.2.8 Dymethyl ether (DME) 905
    • 17.9.2.3 Prices 906
    • 17.9.2.4 Global production and consumption 906
  • 17.9.3 Renewable diesel 909
    • 17.9.3.1 Production 909
    • 17.9.3.2 SWOT analysis 910
    • 17.9.3.3 Global consumption 911
    • 17.9.3.4 Prices 914
  • 17.9.4 Bio-aviation fuel (bio-jet fuel, sustainable aviation fuel, renewable jet fuel or aviation biofuel) 915
    • 17.9.4.1 Description 915
    • 17.9.4.2 SWOT analysis 915
    • 17.9.4.3 Global production and consumption 916
    • 17.9.4.4 Production pathways 917
    • 17.9.4.5 Prices 919
    • 17.9.4.6 Bio-aviation fuel production capacities 920
    • 17.9.4.7 Market challenges 920
    • 17.9.4.8 Global consumption 921
  • 17.9.5 Bio-naphtha 922
    • 17.9.5.1 Overview 922
    • 17.9.5.2 SWOT analysis 923
    • 17.9.5.3 Markets and applications 924
    • 17.9.5.4 Prices 926
    • 17.9.5.5 Production capacities, by producer, current and planned 926
    • 17.9.5.6 Production capacities, total (tonnes), historical, current and planned 927
  • 17.9.6 Biomethanol 928
    • 17.9.6.1 SWOT analysis 929
    • 17.9.6.2 Methanol-to gasoline technology 930
    • 17.9.6.2.1 Production processes 931
      • 17.9.6.2.1.1 Anaerobic digestion 932
      • 17.9.6.2.1.2 Biomass gasification 933
      • 17.9.6.2.1.3 Power to Methane 933
  • 17.9.7 Ethanol 934
    • 17.9.7.1 Technology description 934
    • 17.9.7.2 1G Bio-Ethanol 934
    • 17.9.7.3 SWOT analysis 935
    • 17.9.7.4 Ethanol to jet fuel technology 936
    • 17.9.7.5 Methanol from pulp & paper production 937
    • 17.9.7.6 Sulfite spent liquor fermentation 937
    • 17.9.7.7 Gasification 938
      • 17.9.7.7.1 Biomass gasification and syngas fermentation 938
      • 17.9.7.7.2 Biomass gasification and syngas thermochemical conversion 938
    • 17.9.7.8 CO2 capture and alcohol synthesis 939
    • 17.9.7.9 Biomass hydrolysis and fermentation 939
      • 17.9.7.9.1 Separate hydrolysis and fermentation 939
      • 17.9.7.9.2 Simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (SSF) 940
      • 17.9.7.9.3 Pre-hydrolysis and simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (PSSF) 940
      • 17.9.7.9.4 Simultaneous saccharification and co-fermentation (SSCF) 941
      • 17.9.7.9.5 Direct conversion (consolidated bioprocessing) (CBP) 941
    • 17.9.7.10 Global ethanol consumption 942
  • 17.9.8 Biobutanol 943
    • 17.9.8.1 Production 945
    • 17.9.8.2 Prices 945
  • 17.9.9 Biomass-based Gas 946
    • 17.9.9.1 Biomethane 948
    • 17.9.9.2 Production pathways 950
      • 17.9.9.2.1 Landfill gas recovery 950
      • 17.9.9.2.2 Anaerobic digestion 951
      • 17.9.9.2.3 Thermal gasification 952
    • 17.9.9.3 SWOT analysis 953
    • 17.9.9.4 Global production 954
    • 17.9.9.5 Prices 954
      • 17.9.9.5.1 Raw Biogas 954
      • 17.9.9.5.2 Upgraded Biomethane 954
    • 17.9.9.6 Bio-LNG 955
      • 17.9.9.6.1 Markets 955
        • 17.9.9.6.1.1 Trucks 955
        • 17.9.9.6.1.2 Marine 955
      • 17.9.9.6.2 Production 955
      • 17.9.9.6.3 Plants 956
    • 17.9.9.7 bio-CNG (compressed natural gas derived from biogas) 956
    • 17.9.9.8 Carbon capture from biogas 957
  • 17.9.10 Biosyngas 958
    • 17.9.10.1 Production 958
    • 17.9.10.2 Prices 959
  • 17.9.11 Biohydrogen 960
    • 17.9.11.1 Description 960
    • 17.9.11.2 SWOT analysis 961
    • 17.9.11.3 Production of biohydrogen from biomass 962
      • 17.9.11.3.1 Biological Conversion Routes 963
        • 17.9.11.3.1.1 Bio-photochemical Reaction 963
        • 17.9.11.3.1.2 Fermentation and Anaerobic Digestion 963
      • 17.9.11.3.2 Thermochemical conversion routes 963
        • 17.9.11.3.2.1 Biomass Gasification 964
        • 17.9.11.3.2.2 Biomass Pyrolysis 964
        • 17.9.11.3.2.3 Biomethane Reforming 964
    • 17.9.11.4 Applications 965
    • 17.9.11.5 Prices 966
  • 17.9.12 Biochar in biogas production 966
  • 17.9.13 Bio-DME 966
  • 17.9.14 Chemical recycling for biofuels 967
    • 17.9.14.1 Plastic pyrolysis 967
    • 17.9.14.2 Used tires pyrolysis 968
      • 17.9.14.2.1 Conversion to biofuel 969
    • 17.9.14.3 Co-pyrolysis of biomass and plastic wastes 970
    • 17.9.14.4 Gasification 971
      • 17.9.14.4.1 Syngas conversion to methanol 972
      • 17.9.14.4.2 Biomass gasification and syngas fermentation 976
      • 17.9.14.4.3 Biomass gasification and syngas thermochemical conversion 976
    • 17.9.14.5 Hydrothermal cracking 977
  • 17.9.15 Electrofuels (E-fuels, power-to-gas/liquids/fuels) 978
    • 17.9.15.1 Introduction 978
    • 17.9.15.2 Benefits of e-fuels 980
    • 17.9.15.3 Feedstocks 981
      • 17.9.15.3.1 Hydrogen electrolysis 981
    • 17.9.15.4 CO2 capture 982
    • 17.9.15.5 Production 982
      • 17.9.15.5.1 eFuel production facilities, current and planned 985
    • 17.9.15.6 Companies 986
  • 17.9.16 Algae-derived biofuels 987
    • 17.9.16.1 Technology description 987
      • 17.9.16.1.1 Conversion pathways 987
    • 17.9.16.2 Production 988
    • 17.9.16.3 Market challenges 989
    • 17.9.16.4 Prices 990
    • 17.9.16.5 Producers 991
  • 17.9.17 Green Ammonia 991
    • 17.9.17.1 Production 992
      • 17.9.17.1.1 Decarbonisation of ammonia production 994
      • 17.9.17.1.2 Green ammonia projects 995
    • 17.9.17.2 Green ammonia synthesis methods 995
      • 17.9.17.2.1 Haber-Bosch process 995
      • 17.9.17.2.2 Biological nitrogen fixation 996
      • 17.9.17.2.3 Electrochemical production 997
      • 17.9.17.2.4 Chemical looping processes 997
    • 17.9.17.3 Blue ammonia 997
      • 17.9.17.3.1 Blue ammonia projects 997
      • 17.9.17.3.2 Markets and applications 998
      • 17.9.17.3.3 Chemical energy storage 998
      • 17.9.17.3.4 Ammonia fuel cells 998
      • 17.9.17.3.5 Marine fuel 999
      • 17.9.17.3.6 Prices 1001
    • 17.9.17.4 Companies and projects 1003
  • 17.9.18 Bio-oils (pyrolysis oils) 1004
    • 17.9.18.1 Description 1004
      • 17.9.18.1.1 Advantages of bio-oils 1004
    • 17.9.18.2 Production 1006
      • 17.9.18.2.1 Fast Pyrolysis 1006
      • 17.9.18.2.2 Costs of production 1006
      • 17.9.18.2.3 Upgrading 1006
    • 17.9.18.3 Applications 1008
    • 17.9.18.4 Bio-oil producers 1008
    • 17.9.18.5 Prices 1009
  • 17.9.19 Refuse Derived Fuels (RDF) 1010
    • 17.9.19.1 Overview 1010
    • 17.9.19.2 Production 1010
      • 17.9.19.2.1 Production process 1010
      • 17.9.19.2.2 Mechanical biological treatment 1011
    • 17.9.19.3 Markets 1012
  • 17.9.20 Bio-based Lubricants 1012
  • 17.9.21 Companies 1015
• 17.10 Pharmaceuticals and Healthcare 1018
  • 17.10.1 Green Pharmaceutical Synthesis 1018
    • 17.10.1.1 Green Solvents 1018
    • 17.10.1.2 Catalysis 1020
    • 17.10.1.3 Continuous Flow Chemistry 1021
    • 17.10.1.4 Alternative Energy Sources 1023
    • 17.10.1.5 Green Oxidation and Reduction Methods 1024
    • 17.10.1.6 Atom-Economical Reactions 1025
    • 17.10.1.7 Bio-based Starting Materials 1027
    • 17.10.1.8 Process Intensification 1028
    • 17.10.1.9 Green Analytical Techniques 1030
    • 17.10.1.10 Sustainable Purification Methods 1031
  • 17.10.2 Bio-based Drug Delivery Systems 1032
    • 17.10.2.1 Natural Polymers 1032
    • 17.10.2.2 Protein-based Materials 1034
    • 17.10.2.3 Polysaccharide-based Systems 1036
    • 17.10.2.4 Lipid-based Carriers 1038
    • 17.10.2.5 Plant-derived Materials 1040
    • 17.10.2.6 Microbial-derived Polymers 1042
    • 17.10.2.7 Green Synthesis Methods 1044
    • 17.10.2.8 Stimuli-responsive Biopolymers 1046
    • 17.10.2.9 Bioconjugation Techniques 1048
    • 17.10.2.10 Sustainable Particle Formation 1050
    • 17.10.2.11 Bio-inspired Delivery Systems 1051
  • 17.10.3 Sustainable Medical Devices 1053
  • 17.10.4 Personalized Chemistry in Medicine 1055
    • 17.10.4.1 Tailored Drug Delivery Systems 1055
    • 17.10.4.2 Personalized Diagnostic Materials 1056
    • 17.10.4.3 Custom-synthesized Therapeutics 1058
    • 17.10.4.4 Biocompatible Materials for Implants 1059
    • 17.10.4.5 3D-printed Pharmaceuticals 1061
    • 17.10.4.6 Personalized Nutrient Formulations 1063
  • 17.10.5 Companies 1065
• 17.11 Advanced Materials for 3D Printing 1067
  • 17.11.1 Bio-based 3D Printing Resins 1067
  • 17.11.2 Recyclable and Reusable 3D Printing Materials 1069
  • 17.11.3 Functional and Smart 3D Printing Materials 1071
  • 17.11.3.1 Companies 1073
• 17.12 Artificial Intelligence in Chemical Design 1076
  • 17.12.1 Machine Learning for Molecular Design 1076
  • 17.12.2 AI-driven Retrosynthesis Planning 1077
  • 17.12.3 Predictive Modeling of Chemical Properties 1079
  • 17.12.4 AI in Process Optimization 1080
  • 17.12.5 Automated Lab Systems and Robotics 1080
  • 17.12.6 AI for Materials Discovery and Development 1083
• 17.13 Quantum Chemistry Applications 1085
  • 17.13.1 Quantum Computing for Molecular Simulations 1085
  • 17.13.2 Quantum Sensors in Chemical Analysis 1086
  • 17.13.3 Quantum-inspired Algorithms for Property Prediction 1087
  • 17.13.4 Quantum Approaches to Catalyst Design 1089
  • 17.13.5 Quantum Chemistry in Drug Discovery 1090
  • 17.13.6 Quantum Effects in Nanomaterials 1091

18 ECONOMIC ASPECTS AND BUSINESS MODELS 1093

• 18.1 Cost Competitiveness of Sustainable Chemical Technologies 1093
• 18.2 Investment Trends in Green Chemistry 1094
• 18.3 New Business Models in the Circular Economy 1095
• 18.4 Market Dynamics and Consumer Preferences 1096
• 18.5 Intellectual Property Considerations 1098

19 FUTURE OUTLOOK AND EMERGING TRENDS 1100

• 19.1 Convergence of Bio, Nano, and Information Technologies 1101
• 19.2 Quantum Computing in Chemical Research and Development 1102
• 19.3 Space-based Manufacturing of Chemicals 1103
• 19.4 Artificial Photosynthesis and Solar Fuels 1104
• 19.5 Personalized and On-demand Chemical Manufacturing 1105
• 19.6 The Role of Chemistry in Achieving Net-Zero Emissions 1106
• 19.7 Green Chemistry Advancements 1107
• 19.8 Specialty Chemicals Evolution 1109
• 19.9 Circular Economy Solutions 1111
• 19.10 Artificial Intelligence and Digitalization Impact 1112
• 19.11 Quantum Chemistry Prospects 1113

20 APPENDICES 1116

• 20.1 Glossary of Terms 1116
• 20.2 List of Abbreviations 1117
• 20.3 Research Methodology 1118

21 REFERENCES 1120

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List of Tables/Graphs

List of Tables

• Table 1. Global drivers and trends in sustainable chemicals. 45
• Table 2. Types of sustainable chemicals and applications in agriculture. 53
• Table 3. Types of sustainable chemicals and applications in Green Cosmetics and Personal Care. 54
• Table 4. Types of sustainable chemicals and applications in Sustainable Packaging. 54
• Table 5. Types of sustainable chemicals and applications in Eco-friendly Paints and Coatings. 55
• Table 6. Types of sustainable chemicals and applications in Alternative Fuels and Lubricants. 56
• Table 7. Types of sustainable chemicals and applications in Pharmaceuticals and Healthcare. 57
• Table 8. Types of sustainable chemicals and applications in Water Treatment and Purification. 58
• Table 9. Types of sustainable chemicals and applications in Advanced Materials for 3D Printing. 59
• Table 10. Sustainable Mining and Metallurgy. 61
• Table 11. Comparison of traditional and sustainable chemical feedstocks. 63
• Table 12. Types of Biomass and Their Chemical Compositions. 64
• Table 13. Pretreatment and Conversion Technologies. 66
• Table 14. Challenges in Scaling Up Biomass Utilization. 68
• Table 15. CO2 Capture Technologies. 70
• Table 16. Chemical Conversion Pathways for CO2. 71
• Table 17. Economic and Technical Barriers to CO2 Utilization. 73
• Table 18. Industrial Waste Streams and By-products. 76
• Table 19. Electrolysis Technologies. 79
• Table 20. Types of biocatalysts. 92
• Table 21. Heterogeneous Catalysis Advancements. 94
• Table 22. Photocatalysis vs Electrocatalysis. 95
• Table 23. Applications of chemically recycled materials. 102
• Table 24. Summary of non-catalytic pyrolysis technologies. 104
• Table 25. Summary of catalytic pyrolysis technologies. 105
• Table 26. Summary of pyrolysis technique under different operating conditions. 109
• Table 27. Biomass materials and their bio-oil yield. 110
• Table 28. Biofuel production cost from the biomass pyrolysis process. 111
• Table 29. Pyrolysis companies and plant capacities, current and planned. 114
• Table 30. Summary of gasification technologies. 115
• Table 31. Advanced recycling (Gasification) companies. 121
• Table 32. Summary of dissolution technologies. 121
• Table 33. Advanced recycling (Dissolution) companies 122
• Table 34. Depolymerisation processes for PET, PU, PC and PA, products and yields. 124
• Table 35. Summary of hydrolysis technologies-feedstocks, process, outputs, commercial maturity and technology developers. 125
• Table 36. Summary of Enzymolysis technologies-feedstocks, process, outputs, commercial maturity and technology developers. 126
• Table 37. Summary of methanolysis technologies-feedstocks, process, outputs, commercial maturity and technology developers. 127
• Table 38. Summary of glycolysis technologies-feedstocks, process, outputs, commercial maturity and technology developers. 128
• Table 39. Summary of aminolysis technologies. 131
• Table 40. Advanced recycling (Depolymerisation) companies and capacities (current and planned). 131
• Table 41. Overview of hydrothermal cracking for advanced chemical recycling. 132
• Table 42. Overview of Pyrolysis with in-line reforming for advanced chemical recycling. 133
• Table 43. Overview of microwave-assisted pyrolysis for advanced chemical recycling. 134
• Table 44. Overview of plasma pyrolysis for advanced chemical recycling. 134
• Table 45. Overview of plasma gasification for advanced chemical recycling. 135
• Table 46. Chemical recycling companies. 139
• Table 47. Types of advanced manufacturing technologies in the chemical industry. 164
• Table 48. Advantages in Pharmaceuticals and Fine Chemicals. 166
• Table 49. Challenges in Scale-up and Implementation. 168
• Table 50. Production capacities of biorefinery lignin producers. 176
• Table 51. Types of Cell Culture Systems. 179
• Table 52. Factors Affecting Cell Culture Performance. 180
• Table 53. Types of Fermentation Processes. 181
• Table 54. Factors Affecting Fermentation Performance. 182
• Table 55. Advances in Fermentation Technology. 182
• Table 56. Types of Purification Methods in Downstream Processing. 184
• Table 57. Factors Affecting Purification Performance. 185
• Table 58. Advances in Purification Technology. 185
• Table 59. Common formulation methods used in biomanufacturing. 187
• Table 60. Factors Affecting Formulation Performance. 188
• Table 61. Advances in Formulation Technology. 188
• Table 62. Factors Affecting Scale-up Performance in Biomanufacturing. 190
• Table 63. Scale-up Strategies in Biomanufacturing. 191
• Table 64. Factors Affecting Optimization Performance in Biomanufacturing. 192
• Table 65. Optimization Strategies in Biomanufacturing. 193
• Table 66. Types of Quality Control Tests in Biomanufacturing. 194
• Table 67.Factors Affecting Quality Control Performance in Biomanufacturing 195
• Table 68. Factors Affecting Characterization Performance in Biomanufacturing 198
• Table 69. Key fermentation parameters in batch vs continuous biomanufacturing processes. 206
• Table 70. Major microbial cell factories used in industrial biomanufacturing. 211
• Table 71. Comparison of Modes of Operation. 214
• Table 72. Host organisms commonly used in biomanufacturing. 215
• Table 73. Carbon utilization revenue forecast by product (US$). 221
• Table 74. Carbon utilization business models. 224
• Table 75. CO2 utilization and removal pathways. 225
• Table 76. Market challenges for CO2 utilization. 227
• Table 77. Example CO2 utilization pathways. 228
• Table 78. CO2 derived products via Thermochemical conversion-applications, advantages and disadvantages. 231
• Table 79. CO2 derived products via electrochemical conversion-applications, advantages and disadvantages. 235
• Table 80. CO2 derived products via biological conversion-applications, advantages and disadvantages. 240
• Table 81. Companies developing and producing CO2-based polymers. 243
• Table 82. Companies developing mineral carbonation technologies. 246
• Table 83. Comparison of emerging CO₂ utilization applications. 247
• Table 84. Main routes to CO₂-fuels. 249
• Table 85. Market overview for CO2 derived fuels. 250
• Table 86. Main routes to CO₂ -fuels 252
• Table 87. Power-to-Methane projects. 257
• Table 88. Microalgae products and prices. 260
• Table 89. Main Solar-Driven CO2 Conversion Approaches. 262
• Table 90. Companies in CO2-derived fuel products. 262
• Table 91. Commodity chemicals and fuels manufactured from CO2. 269
• Table 92. Companies in CO2-derived chemicals products. 271
• Table 93. Carbon capture technologies and projects in the cement sector 277
• Table 94. Prefabricated versus ready-mixed concrete markets . 281
• Table 95. CO₂ utilization business models in building materials. 284
• Table 96. Companies in CO2 derived building materials. 287
• Table 97. Market challenges for CO2 utilization in construction materials. 288
• Table 98. Companies in CO2 Utilization in Biological Yield-Boosting. 294
• Table 99. Applications of CCS in oil and gas production. 295
• Table 100. CO2 EOR/Storage Challenges. 302
• Table 101. Comparison of types of biocatalysts. 306
• Table 102. Types of Enzyme Biocatalysts. 307
• Table 103. Common microbial hosts used for enzyme production. 308
• Table 104. Enzyme feedstocks. 309
• Table 105. Engineered proteins in industrial applications. 311
• Table 106. Types of Microorganism Biocatalysts. 311
• Table 107. Commonly used bacterial hosts. 312
• Table 108. Examples of fungal hosts. 312
• Table 109. Commonly used yeast hosts. 313
• Table 110. Types of Engineered Biocatalysts. 316
• Table 111. Production methods for biocatalysts. 326
• Table 112. Fermentation processes. 327
• Table 113. Waste-based feedstocks and biochemicals produced. 327
• Table 114. Microbial and mineral-based feedstocks and biochemicals produced. 328
• Table 115. Key biomanufacturing processes utilized in synthetic biology. 338
• Table 116. Molecules produced through industrial biomanufacturing. 339
• Table 117. Continuous vs batch biomanufacturing 340
• Table 118. Key fermentation parameters in batch vs continuous biomanufacturing processes. 340
• Table 119. Synthetic biology fermentation processes. 342
• Table 120. Cell-free versus cell-based systems 343
• Table 121. Key applications of genome engineering. 350
• Table 122. Types of Nanoparticle Biocatalysts. 353
• Table 123. Types of Biocatalytic Cascades and Multi-Enzyme Systems. 355
• Table 124. Companies developing biocatalysts.. 359
• Table 125. Key tools and techniques used in metabolic engineering for pathway optimization. 364
• Table 126. Key applications of metabolic engineering. 366
• Table 127. Main DNA synthesis technologies 368
• Table 128. Main gene assembly methods. 368
• Table 129. Key applications of genome engineering. 373
• Table 130. Engineered proteins in industrial applications. 375
• Table 131.Key computational tools and their applications in synthetic biology. 386
• Table 132. Feedstocks for synthetic biology. 391
• Table 133. Products from C1 feedstocks in white biotechnology. 397
• Table 134. C2 Feedstock Products. 397
• Table 135. CO2 derived products via biological conversion-applications, advantages and disadvantages. 400
• Table 136. Common starch sources that can be used as feedstocks for producing biochemicals. 408
• Table 137. Biomass processes summary, process description and TRL. 411
• Table 138. Pathways for hydrogen production from biomass. 413
• Table 139. Overview of alginate-description, properties, application and market size. 414
• Table 140. Blue biotechnology companies. 417
• Table 141. Types of bio-based solvents. 419
• Table 142. Companies developing bio-based solvents. 427
• Table 143. Value Proposition for Critical Material Extraction Technologies. 434
• Table 144. Critical Material Extraction Methods Evaluated by Key Performance Metrics. 435
• Table 145. Critical Rare-Earth Element Recovery Technologies from Secondary Sources. 437
• Table 146. Li-ion Battery Technology Metal Recovery Methods-Metal, Recovery Method, Recovery Efficiency, Challenges, Environmental Impact, Economic Viability. 438
• Table 147. Critical Semiconductor Materials Recovery-Material, Primary Source, Recovery Method, Recovery Efficiency, Challenges, Potential Applications. 439
• Table 148. Critical Semiconductor Material Recovery from Secondary Sources. 440
• Table 149. Critical Platinum Group Metal Recovery. 442
• Table 150. Companies in waste valorization and resrouce recovery. 490
• Table 151. Energy Efficiency Measures in Chemical Plants. 495
• Table 152. Renewable Energy Sources in Chemical Production. 500
• Table 153. Energy Storage Technologies for Process Industries. 502
• Table 154. Combined Heat and Power (CHP) Systems. 504
• Table 155. Green Chemistry Metrics and Sustainability Indicators. 508
• Table 156. Incentives and Support Mechanisms for Green Chemistry. 524
• Table 157. Challenges in Regulating Emerging Technologies. 525
• Table 158. International Cooperation and Harmonization Efforts. 528
• Table 159. LDPE film versus PLA, 2019–24 (USD/tonne). 533
• Table 160. PLA properties 534
• Table 161. Applications, advantages and disadvantages of PHAs in packaging. 548
• Table 162. Market overview for cellulose microfibers (microfibrillated cellulose) in paperboard and packaging-market age, key benefits, applications and producers. 552
• Table 163. Applications of nanocrystalline cellulose (CNC). 553
• Table 164. Market overview for cellulose nanofibers in packaging. 555
• Table 165. Applications of Bacterial Nanocellulose in Packaging. 564
• Table 166. Types of protein based-bioplastics, applications and companies. 566
• Table 167. Overview of alginate-description, properties, application and market size. 569
• Table 168. Companies developing algal-based bioplastics. 570
• Table 169. Overview of mycelium fibers-description, properties, drawbacks and applications. 571
• Table 170. Overview of chitosan-description, properties, drawbacks and applications. 573
• Table 171. Commercial Examples of Chitosan-based Films and Coatings and Companies. 574
• Table 172. Bio-based naphtha markets and applications. 576
• Table 173. Bio-naphtha market value chain. 577
• Table 174. Commercial Examples of Bio-Naphtha Packaging and Companies. 578
• Table 175. Bioplastics and biodegradable polymers market players. 581
• Table 176. Biopesticides and Biocontrol Agents. 585
• Table 177. Sustainable Agriculture Chemicals Market Players. 599
• Table 178. Established bio-based construction materials. 603
• Table 179. Types of self-healing concrete. 611
• Table 180. Types of biobased aerogels. 623
• Table 181. Sustainable Construction Materials Market Players. 624
• Table 182. Natural and Bio-based Ingredients. 628
• Table 183. Biodegradable polymers. 632
• Table 184.Companies developing starch microspheres/microbeads. 634
• Table 185. Companies developing microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) spheres/beads. 635
• Table 186. Companies developing cellulose microbeads. 636
• Table 187. CNC properties. 636
• Table 188. Companies developing cellulose nanocrystal microbeads. 637
• Table 189. Companies developing bacterial nanocellulose microbeads. 639
• Table 190.Companies developing chitin microspheres/microbeads. 639
• Table 191.Types of PHAs and properties. 641
• Table 192. Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) producers. 642
• Table 193. Companies developing PHA for microbeads. 644
• Table 194. PLA producers and production capacities. 645
• Table 195. Technical lignin types and applications. 646
• Table 196. Properties of lignins and their applications. 648
• Table 197. Production capacities of technical lignin producers. 649
• Table 198. Production capacities of biorefinery lignin producers. 650
• Table 199. Companies developing lignin for microbeads (current or potential applications). 650
• Table 200. Companies developing alginate for microbeads (current or potential applications). 652
• Table 201. Green Cosmetics and Personal Care Market Players. 656
• Table 202. Pros and cons of different type of food packaging materials. 661
• Table 203. Active Biodegradable Films films and their food applications. 668
• Table 204. Intelligent Biodegradable Films. 669
• Table 205. Edible films and coatings market summary. 672
• Table 206. Types of polyols. 675
• Table 207. Polyol producers. 676
• Table 208. Bio-based polyurethane coating products. 677
• Table 209. Bio-based acrylate resin products. 679
• Table 210. Polylactic acid (PLA) market analysis. 679
• Table 211. Commercially available PHAs. 682
• Table 212. Market overview for cellulose nanofibers in paints and coatings. 684
• Table 213. Companies developing cellulose nanofibers products in paints and coatings. 686
• Table 214. Types of protein based-biomaterials, applications and companies. 689
• Table 215. CO2 utilization and removal pathways. 691
• Table 216. CO2 utilization products developed by chemical and plastic producers. 694
• Table 217. Sustainable packaging market players. 696
• Table 218. Example envinronmentally friendly coatings, advantages and disadvantages. 700
• Table 219. Plant Waxes. 707
• Table 220. Types of alkyd resins and properties. 712
• Table 221. Market summary for bio-based alkyd coatings-raw materials, advantages, disadvantages, applications and producers. 714
• Table 222. Bio-based alkyd coating products. 715
• Table 223. Types of polyols. 716
• Table 224. Polyol producers. 717
• Table 225. Bio-based polyurethane coating products. 718
• Table 226. Market summary for bio-based epoxy resins. 720
• Table 227. Bio-based polyurethane coating products. 722
• Table 228. Bio-based acrylate resin products. 723
• Table 229. Polylactic acid (PLA) market analysis. 724
• Table 230. Market assessment for cellulose nanofibers in paints and coatings-application, key benefits and motivation for use, megatrends, market drivers, technology drawbacks, competing materials, material loading, main global paints and coatings OEMs. 728
• Table 231. Companies developing CNF products in paints and coatings, applications targeted and stage of commercialization. 731
• Table 232. Types of protein based-biomaterials, applications and companies. 740
• Table 233. Overview of algal coatings-description, properties, application and market size. 742
• Table 234. Companies developing algal-based plastics. 744
• Table 235. Eco-friendly Paints and Coatings Market Players. 746
• Table 236. Benefits of Green Electronics Manufacturing 751
• Table 237. Challenges in adopting Green Electronics manufacturing. 752
• Table 238. Key areas where the PCB industry can improve sustainability. 754
• Table 239. Improving sustainability of PCB design. 755
• Table 240. PCB design options for sustainability. 756
• Table 241. Sustainability benefits and challenges associated with 3D printing. 759
• Table 242. Conductive ink producers. 762
• Table 243. Green and lead-free solder companies. 763
• Table 244. Biodegradable substrates for PCBs. 764
• Table 245. Overview of mycelium fibers-description, properties, drawbacks and applications. 765
• Table 246. Application of lignin in composites. 767
• Table 247. Properties of lignins and their applications. 768
• Table 248. Properties of flexible electronics‐cellulose nanofiber film (nanopaper). 771
• Table 249. Companies developing cellulose nanofibers for electronics. 771
• Table 250. Commercially available PHAs. 774
• Table 251. Main limitations of the FR4 material system used for manufacturing printed circuit boards (PCBs). 776
• Table 252. Halogen-free FR4 companies. 778
• Table 253. Properties of biobased PCBs. 779
• Table 254. Applications of flexible (bio) polyimide PCBs. 781
• Table 255. Main patterning and metallization steps in PCB fabrication and sustainable options. 784
• Table 256. Sustainability issues with conventional metallization processes. 784
• Table 257. Benefits of print-and-plate. 786
• Table 258. Sustainable alternative options to standard plating resists used in printed circuit board (PCB) fabrication. 790
• Table 259. Applications for laser induced forward transfer 791
• Table 260. Copper versus silver inks in laser-induced forward transfer (LIFT) for electronics fabrication. 792
• Table 261. Approaches for in-situ oxidation prevention. 792
• Table 262. Market readiness and maturity of different lead-free solders and electrically conductive adhesives (ECAs) for electronics manufacturing. 795
• Table 263. Advantages of green electroless plating. 795
• Table 264. Comparison of component attachment materials. 800
• Table 265. Comparison between sustainable and conventional component attachment materials for printed circuit boards 801
• Table 266. Comparison between the SMAs and SMPs. 804
• Table 267. Comparison of conductive biopolymers versus conventional materials for printed circuit board fabrication. 806
• Table 268. Comparison of curing and reflow processes used for attaching components in electronics assembly. 806
• Table 269. Low temperature solder alloys. 808
• Table 270. Thermally sensitive substrate materials. 808
• Table 271. Limitations of existing IC production. 814
• Table 272. Strategies for improving sustainability in integrated circuit (IC) manufacturing. 815
• Table 273. Comparison of oxidation methods and level of sustainability. 818
• Table 274. Stage of commercialization for oxides. 819
• Table 275. Alternative doping techniques. 823
• Table 276. Metal content mg / Kg in Printed Circuit Boards (PCBs) from waste desktop computers. 830
• Table 277. Chemical recycling methods for handling electronic waste. 831
• Table 278. Electrochemical processes for recycling metals from electronic waste 832
• Table 279. Thermal recycling processes for electronic waste. 832
• Table 280. Green Electronics Market Players. 834
• Table 281. Properties and applications of the main natural fibres 838
• Table 282. Types of sustainable alternative leathers. 846
• Table 283. Properties of bio-based leathers. 848
• Table 284. Comparison with conventional leathers. 850
• Table 285. Price of commercially available sustainable alternative leather products. 852
• Table 286. Comparative analysis of sustainable alternative leathers. 853
• Table 287. Key processing steps involved in transforming plant fibers into leather materials. 854
• Table 288. Current and emerging plant-based leather products. 858
• Table 289. Companies developing plant-based leather products. 858
• Table 290. Overview of mycelium-description, properties, drawbacks and applications. 860
• Table 291. Companies developing mycelium-based leather products. 865
• Table 292. Types of microbial-derived leather alternative. 869
• Table 293. Companies developing microbial leather products. 871
• Table 294. Companies developing plant-based leather products. 874
• Table 295. Types of protein-based leather alternatives. 875
• Table 296. Companies developing protein based leather. 877
• Table 297. Companies developing sustainable coatings and dyes for leather - 879
• Table 298. Sustainable Textiles and Fibers Market Players. 880
• Table 299. Biodiesel by generation. 885
• Table 300. Biodiesel production techniques. 886
• Table 301. Summary of pyrolysis technique under different operating conditions. 887
• Table 302. Biomass materials and their bio-oil yield. 889
• Table 303. Biofuel production cost from the biomass pyrolysis process. 889
• Table 304. Properties of vegetable oils in comparison to diesel. 891
• Table 305. Main producers of HVO and capacities. 892
• Table 306. Example commercial Development of BtL processes. 893
• Table 307. Pilot or demo projects for biomass to liquid (BtL) processes. 894
• Table 308. Global biodiesel consumption, 2010-2035 (M litres/year). 899
• Table 309. Global renewable diesel consumption, 2010-2035 (M litres/year). 904
• Table 310. Renewable diesel price ranges. 905
• Table 311. Advantages and disadvantages of Bio-aviation fuel. 906
• Table 312. Production pathways for Bio-aviation fuel. 908
• Table 313. Current and announced Bio-aviation fuel facilities and capacities. 911
• Table 314. Global bio-jet fuel consumption 2019-2035 (Million litres/year). 912
• Table 315. Bio-based naphtha markets and applications. 915
• Table 316. Bio-naphtha market value chain. 916
• Table 317. Bio-naphtha pricing against petroleum-derived naphtha and related fuel products. 917
• Table 318. Bio-based Naphtha production capacities, by producer. 917
• Table 319. Comparison of biogas, biomethane and natural gas. 923
• Table 320.  Processes in bioethanol production. 931
• Table 321. Microorganisms used in CBP for ethanol production from biomass lignocellulosic. 932
• Table 322. Ethanol consumption 2010-2035 (million litres). 933
• Table 323. Biogas feedstocks. 938
• Table 324. Existing and planned bio-LNG production plants. 947
• Table 325. Methods for capturing carbon dioxide from biogas. 948
• Table 326. Comparison of different Bio-H2 production pathways. 953
• Table 327. Markets and applications for biohydrogen. 956
• Table 328. Summary of gasification technologies. 962
• Table 329. Overview of hydrothermal cracking for advanced chemical recycling. 968
• Table 330. Applications of e-fuels, by type. 970
• Table 331. Overview of e-fuels. 971
• Table 332. Benefits of e-fuels. 971
• Table 333. eFuel production facilities, current and planned. 976
• Table 334. E-fuels companies. 977
• Table 335. Algae-derived biofuel producers. 982
• Table 336. Green ammonia projects (current and planned). 986
• Table 337. Blue ammonia projects. 988
• Table 338. Ammonia fuel cell technologies. 989
• Table 339. Market overview of green ammonia in marine fuel. 991
• Table 340. Summary of marine alternative fuels. 991
• Table 341. Estimated costs for different types of ammonia. 993
• Table 342. Main players in green ammonia. 994
• Table 343. Typical composition and physicochemical properties reported for bio-oils and heavy petroleum-derived oils. 996
• Table 344. Properties and characteristics of pyrolysis liquids derived from biomass versus a fuel oil. 996
• Table 345. Main techniques used to upgrade bio-oil into higher-quality fuels. 998
• Table 346. Markets and applications for bio-oil. 999
• Table 347. Bio-oil producers. 999
• Table 348. Key resource recovery technologies 1001
• Table 349. Markets and end uses for refuse-derived fuels (RDF). 1003
• Table 350. Bio-based lubricants. 1003
• Table 351. Alternative Fuels and Lubricants Market Players. 1006
• Table 352. Sustainable medical devices. 1044
• Table 353. Sustainable Healthcare and Biomedicine Market Players. 1056
• Table 354. Advanced Materials for 3D Printing. 1064
• Table 355. Glossary of terms. 1107
• Table 356. List of Abbreviations. 1108

List of Figures

• Figure 1. CO2 emissions reduction pathway for the chemical sector. 73
• Figure 2. Water extraction methods for natural products. 87
• Figure 3. Circular economy model for the chemical industry. 99
• Figure 4. Schematic layout of a pyrolysis plant. 103
• Figure 5. Waste plastic production pathways to (A) diesel and (B) gasoline 108
• Figure 6. Schematic for Pyrolysis of Scrap Tires. 112
• Figure 7. Used tires conversion process. 113
• Figure 8. Total syngas market by product in MM Nm³/h of Syngas, 2021. 117
• Figure 9. Overview of biogas utilization. 118
• Figure 10. Biogas and biomethane pathways. 119
• Figure 11. Products obtained through the different solvolysis pathways of PET, PU, and PA. 123
• Figure 12. Electroorganic Synthesis. 148
• Figure 13. Digital Twin schematic. 160
• Figure 14. CO2 non-conversion and conversion technology, advantages and disadvantages. 218
• Figure 15. Applications for CO2. 220
• Figure 16. Cost to capture one metric ton of carbon, by sector. 221
• Figure 17. Life cycle of CO2-derived products and services. 227
• Figure 18. Co2 utilization pathways and products. 230
• Figure 19. Plasma technology configurations and their advantages and disadvantages for CO2 conversion. 234
• Figure 20. Electrochemical CO₂ reduction products. 235
• Figure 21. LanzaTech gas-fermentation process. 239
• Figure 22. Schematic of biological CO2 conversion into e-fuels. 240
• Figure 23. Econic catalyst systems. 243
• Figure 24. Mineral carbonation processes. 246
• Figure 25. Conversion route for CO2-derived fuels and chemical intermediates. 251
• Figure 26. Conversion pathways for CO2-derived methane, methanol and diesel. 252
• Figure 27. CO2 feedstock for the production of e-methanol. 259
• Figure 28. Schematic illustration of (a) biophotosynthetic, (b) photothermal, (c) microbial-photoelectrochemical, (d) photosynthetic and photocatalytic (PS/PC), (e) photoelectrochemical (PEC), and (f) photovoltaic plus electrochemical (PV+EC) approaches for CO2 c 261
• Figure 29. Audi synthetic fuels. 263
• Figure 30. Conversion of CO2 into chemicals and fuels via different pathways. 268
• Figure 31. Conversion pathways for CO2-derived polymeric materials 270
• Figure 32. Conversion pathway for CO2-derived building materials. 274
• Figure 33. Schematic of CCUS in cement sector. 275
• Figure 34. Carbon8 Systems’ ACT process. 280
• Figure 35. CO2 utilization in the Carbon Cure process. 281
• Figure 36. Algal cultivation in the desert. 290
• Figure 37. Example pathways for products from cyanobacteria. 293
• Figure 38. Typical Flow Diagram for CO2 EOR. 296
• Figure 39. Large CO2-EOR projects in different project stages by industry. 298
• Figure 40. Carbon mineralization pathways. 301
• Figure 41. Cell-free and cell-based protein synthesis systems. 345
• Figure 42. CRISPR/Cas9 & Targeted Genome Editing. 372
• Figure 43. Genetic Circuit-Assisted Smart Microbial Engineering. 380
• Figure 44. Microbial Chassis Development for Natural Product Biosynthesis. 382
• Figure 45. LanzaTech gas-fermentation process. 398
• Figure 46. Schematic of biological CO2 conversion into e-fuels. 399
• Figure 47. Overview of biogas utilization. 403
• Figure 48. Biogas and biomethane pathways. 404
• Figure 49. Schematic overview of anaerobic digestion process for biomethane production. 406
• Figure 50. BLOOM masterbatch from Algix. 415
• Figure 51. TRL of critical material extraction technologies. 433
• Figure 52. Organization and morphology of cellulose synthesizing terminal complexes (TCs) in different organisms. 551
• Figure 53. TEM image of cellulose nanocrystals. 552
• Figure 54. CNC slurry. 553
• Figure 55. CNF gel. 555
• Figure 56. Bacterial nanocellulose shapes 563
• Figure 57. BLOOM masterbatch from Algix. 570
• Figure 58. Luum Temple, constructed from Bamboo. 603
• Figure 59. Typical structure of mycelium-based foam. 607
• Figure 60. Commercial mycelium composite construction materials. 607
• Figure 61. Self-healing concrete test study with cracked concrete (left) and self-healed concrete after 28 days (right). 611
• Figure 62. Self-healing bacteria crack filler for concrete. 612
• Figure 63. Self-healing bio concrete. 613
• Figure 64. Microalgae based biocement masonry bloc. 616
• Figure 65. Types of bio-based materials used for antimicrobial food packaging application. 670
• Figure 66. Water soluble packaging by Notpla. 674
• Figure 67. Examples of edible films in food packaging. 675
• Figure 68. Hefcel-coated wood (left) and untreated wood (right) after 30 seconds flame test. 688
• Figure 69. Applications for CO2. 691
• Figure 70. Life cycle of CO2-derived products and services. 693
• Figure 71. Conversion pathways for CO2-derived polymeric materials 694
• Figure 72. Schematic of production of powder coatings. 703
• Figure 73. Organization and morphology of cellulose synthesizing terminal complexes (TCs) in different organisms. 706
• Figure 74. Types of bio-based materials used for antimicrobial food packaging application. 736
• Figure 75. BLOOM masterbatch from Algix. 743
• Figure 76. Vapor degreasing. 755
• Figure 77. Multi-layered PCB. 756
• Figure 78. 3D printed PCB. 758
• Figure 79. In-mold electronics prototype devices and products. 759
• Figure 80. Silver nanocomposite ink after sintering and resin bonding of discrete electronic components. 761
• Figure 81. Typical structure of mycelium-based foam. 767
• Figure 82. Flexible electronic substrate made from CNF. 771
• Figure 83. CNF composite. 772
• Figure 84. Oji CNF transparent sheets. 772
• Figure 85. Electronic components using cellulose nanofibers as insulating materials. 773
• Figure 86. BLOOM masterbatch from Algix. 773
• Figure 87. Dell's Concept Luna laptop. 782
• Figure 88. Direct-write, precision dispensing, and 3D printing platform for 3D printed electronics. 788
• Figure 89. 3D printed circuit boards from Nano Dimension. 788
• Figure 90. Photonic sintering. 789
• Figure 91. Laser-induced forward transfer (LIFT). 791
• Figure 92. Material jetting 3d printing. 798
• Figure 93. Material jetting 3d printing product. 799
• Figure 94. The molecular mechanism of the shape memory effect under different stimuli. 805
• Figure 95. Supercooled Soldering™ Technology. 810
• Figure 96. Reflow soldering schematic. 811
• Figure 97. Schematic diagram of induction heating reflow. 812
• Figure 98. Fully-printed organic thin-film transistors and circuitry on one-micron-thick polymer films. 818
• Figure 99. Types of PCBs after dismantling waste computers and monitors. 829
• Figure 100. AlgiKicks sneaker, made with the Algiknit biopolymer gel. 844
• Figure 101. Conceptual landscape of next-gen leather materials. 846
• Figure 102. Typical structure of mycelium-based foam. 862
• Figure 103. Hermès bag made of MycoWorks' mycelium leather. 865
• Figure 104. Ganni blazer made from bacterial cellulose. 870
• Figure 105. Bou Bag by GANNI and Modern Synthesis. 871
• Figure 106. Regional production of biodiesel (billion litres). 884
• Figure 107. Flow chart for biodiesel production. 890
• Figure 108. Biodiesel (B20) average prices, current and historical, USD/litre. 897
• Figure 109. Global biodiesel consumption, 2010-2035 (M litres/year). 899
• Figure 110. SWOT analysis for renewable iesel. 902
• Figure 111. Global renewable diesel consumption, 2010-2035 (M litres/year). 904
• Figure 112. SWOT analysis for Bio-aviation fuel. 907
• Figure 113. Global bio-jet fuel consumption to 2019-2035 (Million litres/year). 912
• Figure 114. SWOT analysis for bio-naphtha. 915
• Figure 115. Bio-based naphtha production capacities, 2018-2035 (tonnes). 919
• Figure 116. SWOT analysis biomethanol. 921
• Figure 117. Renewable Methanol Production Processes from Different Feedstocks. 922
• Figure 118. Production of biomethane through anaerobic digestion and upgrading. 923
• Figure 119. Production of biomethane through biomass gasification and methanation. 924
• Figure 120. Production of biomethane through the Power to methane process. 925
• Figure 121. SWOT analysis for ethanol. 927
• Figure 122. Ethanol consumption 2010-2035 (million litres). 933
• Figure 123. Properties of petrol and biobutanol. 935
• Figure 124. Biobutanol production route. 936
• Figure 125. Biogas and biomethane pathways. 938
• Figure 126. Overview of biogas utilization. 940
• Figure 127. Biogas and biomethane pathways. 941
• Figure 128. Schematic overview of anaerobic digestion process for biomethane production. 943
• Figure 129. Schematic overview of biomass gasification for biomethane production. 944
• Figure 130. SWOT analysis for biogas. 945
• Figure 131. Total syngas market by product in MM Nm³/h of Syngas, 2021. 950
• Figure 132. SWOT analysis for biohydrogen. 953
• Figure 133. Waste plastic production pathways to (A) diesel and (B) gasoline 959
• Figure 134. Schematic for Pyrolysis of Scrap Tires. 960
• Figure 135. Used tires conversion process. 961
• Figure 136. Total syngas market by product in MM Nm³/h of Syngas, 2021. 964
• Figure 137. Overview of biogas utilization. 965
• Figure 138. Biogas and biomethane pathways. 966
• Figure 139. Process steps in the production of electrofuels. 969
• Figure 140. Mapping storage technologies according to performance characteristics. 970
• Figure 141. Production process for green hydrogen. 973
• Figure 142. E-liquids production routes. 974
• Figure 143. Fischer-Tropsch liquid e-fuel products. 975
• Figure 144. Resources required for liquid e-fuel production. 975
• Figure 145. Pathways for algal biomass conversion to biofuels. 979
• Figure 146. Algal biomass conversion process for biofuel production. 980
• Figure 147. Classification and process technology according to carbon emission in ammonia production. 983
• Figure 148. Green ammonia production and use. 985
• Figure 149. Schematic of the Haber Bosch ammonia synthesis reaction. 987
• Figure 150. Schematic of hydrogen production via steam methane reformation. 987
• Figure 151. Estimated production cost of green ammonia. 993
• Figure 152. Bio-oil upgrading/fractionation techniques. 998