Summary

The global industrial gases market is poised for significant growth and transformation in the period from 2025 to 2035. This report provides a comprehensive analysis of market trends, key players, technological advancements, and emerging applications that will shape the industry over the next decade. With a focus on sustainability, energy transition, and innovative technologies, the industrial gases sector is set to play a crucial role in various industries, from manufacturing and healthcare to emerging fields like hydrogen energy and carbon capture.

The industrial gases market is a critical component of the global economy, serving as an essential input for numerous industries. As of 2025, the market's importance is underpinned by several factors:

• Manufacturing Support: Industrial gases are vital in manufacturing processes across sectors such as steel, chemicals, electronics, and food processing. They enable efficient production, improve product quality, and enhance process safety.
• Healthcare Applications: Medical gases, including oxygen, nitrous oxide, and medical air, are crucial in healthcare settings for patient treatment, surgical procedures, and life support systems.
• Environmental Solutions: Industrial gases play a key role in environmental applications, including water treatment, air pollution control, and greenhouse gas reduction technologies.
• Energy Sector: The gases industry supports various aspects of the energy sector, from enhanced oil recovery to the emerging hydrogen economy.

The period from 2025 to 2035 is expected to see renewed interest in the industrial gases market, driven by several factors:

• Energy Transition: The global push towards decarbonization and clean energy solutions has put a spotlight on industrial gases, particularly hydrogen and its role in the energy transition.
• Sustainability Initiatives: Companies across industries are increasingly focusing on reducing their carbon footprint, leading to greater demand for industrial gases in carbon capture and utilization technologies.
• Technological Advancements: Innovations in production, distribution, and application of industrial gases are opening new market opportunities and improving efficiency.
• Healthcare Expansion: The ongoing global focus on healthcare infrastructure development, especially in emerging markets, is driving demand for medical gases and related technologies.
• Space Exploration: Renewed interest in space missions and the potential for space industrialization is creating new demand for specialized industrial gases.

The industrial gases market is expanding into new territories and applications, which are expected to be significant growth drivers from 2025 to 2035:

• Green Hydrogen: The production, storage, and distribution of green hydrogen for use in transportation, industry, and power generation represent a major new market for the industrial gases sector.
• Carbon Capture, Utilization, and Storage (CCUS): As governments and industries seek to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, CCUS technologies are gaining traction, creating new opportunities for industrial gas companies.
• 3D Printing/Additive Manufacturing: The growth of additive manufacturing is increasing demand for specialized gases used in the production process.
• Electronics and Semiconductor Industry: The continued expansion of the electronics industry, including the development of advanced semiconductors and display technologies, is driving demand for high-purity gases.
• Biotechnology and Life Sciences: The rapid growth of the biotechnology sector is creating new applications for industrial gases in research, production, and storage of biological materials.
• Vertical Farming and Controlled Environment Agriculture: The expansion of indoor farming techniques is increasing demand for CO2 and other gases used to enhance plant growth.

As the nuclear industry faces challenges from the growth of renewable energy in conventional power production, it is increasingly looking towards industrial gas production as a potential new revenue stream and way to utilize its existing infrastructure and expertise. This trend is driven by several factors:

• Hydrogen Production: Nuclear plants can use their excess heat and electricity to produce hydrogen through high-temperature electrolysis, potentially offering a cost-effective and low-carbon method of hydrogen production at scale.
• Oxygen Production: The electrolysis process used for hydrogen production also generates pure oxygen as a by-product, which can be captured and sold for industrial use.
• Utilization of Existing Infrastructure: Nuclear plants have extensive electrical and cooling infrastructure that can be leveraged for industrial gas production, potentially lowering capital costs.
• Stable Baseload Power: Nuclear plants provide constant, reliable power that is well-suited to the continuous operation required for many industrial gas production processes.
• Carbon-Free Production: As industries seek to decarbonize their supply chains, nuclear-powered industrial gas production offers a low-carbon alternative to traditional fossil fuel-based methods.

The report segments and analyzes the industrial gases market along several dimensions:

• By Gas Type:
  • Nitrogen
  • Oxygen
  • Hydrogen
  • Carbon Dioxide
  • Argon
  • Helium
  • Specialty Gases
• By End-Use Industry:
  • Manufacturing and Metallurgy
  • Chemicals and Petrochemicals
  • Healthcare and Pharmaceuticals
  • Food and Beverage
  • Electronics and Semiconductors
  • Energy and Power Generation
  • Aerospace and Aviation
  • Others (e.g., Environmental, Research)
• By Production Method:
  • Air Separation Units (ASUs)
  • Steam Methane Reforming
  • Electrolysis
  • By-Product Recovery
  • Others (e.g., Nuclear-Powered Production)
• By Distribution Mode:
  • On-Site/Pipeline
  • Bulk
  • Packaged Gas/Cylinders

The report examines key technological advancements that are shaping the future of the industrial gases market:

• Advanced Air Separation Technologies: Improvements in cryogenic distillation and non-cryogenic separation methods are increasing efficiency and reducing energy consumption.
• Hydrogen Production Technologies: Advancements in electrolysis, including high-temperature electrolysis and polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) electrolysis, as well as emerging technologies like methane pyrolysis.
• Carbon Capture and Utilization: Innovations in capture technologies, including direct air capture, and new applications for captured CO2.
• IoT and Digital Technologies: Implementation of smart sensors, predictive maintenance, and digital supply chain management in gas production and distribution.
• Advanced Materials: Development of new materials for gas storage, separation membranes, and catalysts.

The report provides an in-depth analysis of the competitive landscape, including:

• Market Share Analysis: Examination of the global and regional market shares of key players.
• 579 Company Profiles: Detailed profiles of major companies, including their product portfolios, financial performance, and strategic initiatives. Companies profiled include Air Liquide, Air Products and Chemicals, Inc., AspiraDAC, Carbofex Oy, CarbonCapture Inc., Charm Industrial, Climeworks, Everfuel, Generon, IACX Energy, Linde plc, Lhyfe, Messer Group, POSCO, and Taiyo Nippon Sanso Corporation. 
• Competitive Strategies: Analysis of key strategies employed by market leaders, such as mergers and acquisitions, joint ventures, and product innovations.
• Emerging Players: Identification and analysis of new entrants and innovative startups disrupting the market.

The report provides detailed market forecasts for the period 2025-2035, including:

• Market Size Projections: Overall market size and growth rates, segmented by gas type, end-use industry, and region.
• Technology Adoption Trends: Forecasts for the adoption of new technologies and production methods.
• Emerging Application Areas: Projections for growth in new and emerging applications of industrial gases.
• Scenario Analysis: Multiple scenarios considering factors such as economic conditions, technological advancements, and regulatory changes.

The global industrial gases market is entering a period of significant transformation and growth from 2025 to 2035. Driven by the energy transition, technological advancements, and emerging applications, the industry is poised to play a crucial role in addressing global challenges such as climate change and sustainable industrial development. The involvement of the nuclear industry in gas production represents a notable shift, potentially offering new, low-carbon production methods at scale. As the market evolves, companies that can innovate, adapt to changing regulations, and capitalize on new opportunities will be well-positioned for success in this dynamic and essential industry.

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Table of Contents

1 INTRODUCTION TO INDUSTRIAL GASES 37

• 1.1 Definition and Classification of Industrial Gases 37
• 1.2 Major Types of Industrial Gases 38
  • 1.2.1 Oxygen 38
  • 1.2.2 Nitrogen 39
  • 1.2.3 Argon 40
  • 1.2.4 Hydrogen 41
  • 1.2.5 Carbon Dioxide 43
  • 1.2.6 Helium 44
  • 1.2.7 Acetylene 46
  • 1.2.8 Other Specialty Gases 47
• 1.3 Key Applications and End-Use Industries 49
• 1.4 Production Methods and Technologies 51
  • 1.4.1 Air Separation Units (ASUs) 52
  • 1.4.2 Steam Methane Reforming 53
  • 1.4.3 Electrolysis 54
  • 1.4.4 By-Product Recovery 55
• 1.5 Distribution and Supply Chain Dynamics 56

2 GLOBAL MARKET OVERVIEW 58

• 2.1 Global Industrial Gas Market Size 58
  • 2.1.1 By Gas Type 58
  • 2.1.2 By End-Use Industry 60
  • 2.1.3 By Supply Mode (On-site, Bulk, Cylinder) 61
• 2.2 Regional Market Analysis 62
  • 2.2.1 North America 62
  • 2.2.2 Europe 64
  • 2.2.3 Asia-Pacific 65
  • 2.2.4 Latin America 66
  • 2.2.5 Middle East and Africa 67
• 2.3 Market Drivers and Restraints 67
• 2.4 Industry Trends and Developments 68

3 OXYGEN MARKET ANALYSIS 69

• 3.1 Oxygen Classification and Purity Levels 69
• 3.2 Main Markets and Typical Levels of Purity 70
  • 3.2.1 Steelmaking 70
  • 3.2.2 Chemicals Production 71
  • 3.2.3 Refining 72
  • 3.2.4 Glass & Ceramics Production 72
  • 3.2.5 Water Treatment 73
  • 3.2.6 Medical Oxygen 73
  • 3.2.7 Metal Fabrication 74
  • 3.2.8 Pulp & Paper 75
  • 3.2.9 Food Industry 75
• 3.3 Production 76
  • 3.3.1 Cryogenic air separation 76
  • 3.3.2 Main domestic US oxygen suppliers 77
• 3.4 Transportation 77
  • 3.4.1 Transportation Types 78
  • 3.4.2 Liquid Oxygen Transport 79
  • 3.4.3 Rail Transport 79
  • 3.4.4 Alternative Supply Modes 79
  • 3.4.5 LOX Transport Economics 80
  • 3.4.6 Industry Structure 80
  • 3.4.7 Regulations 80
  • 3.4.8 Outlook 81
• 3.5 Storage 81
• 3.6 Production and Consumption Trends 82
  • 3.6.1 By Region 82
  • 3.6.2 By Classification/purity 83
  • 3.6.3 By Industrial applications 84
  • 3.6.4 By Production costs 86
• 3.7 Pricing 87
  • 3.7.1 By Classification/purity 88
  • 3.7.2 By Industrial applications 89
• 3.8 The oxygen economy and production 93
  • 3.8.1 Dynamics shaping industrial oxygen outlook 93
    • 3.8.1.1 Steelmaking and Metals 93
    • 3.8.1.2 Chemicals 94
    • 3.8.1.3 Refining 94
    • 3.8.1.4 Glass & Ceramics Production 94
    • 3.8.1.5 Water treatment 95
    • 3.8.1.6 Medical oxygen 95
    • 3.8.1.7 Pulp & Paper 95
    • 3.8.1.8 Other 96
• 3.9 Oxygen Market Value Chain 96
• 3.10 Market Challenges and Opportunities 99

4 HELIUM MARKET ANALYSIS 100

• 4.1 Global Helium Resources and Production 100
  • 4.1.1 Geographical Distribution of Helium Resources 100
  • 4.1.2 Major Helium Production Sites 101
  • 4.1.3 Production capacities 101
  • 4.1.4 Market by applications 103
• 4.2 Helium Applications 106
  • 4.2.1 Semiconductor Manufacturing 106
  • 4.2.2 Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) 108
  • 4.2.3 Fiber Optic Manufacturing 109
  • 4.2.4 Aerospace Applications 109
  • 4.2.5 Welding 111
  • 4.2.6 Leak Detection and Testing 112
  • 4.2.7 Lifting Applications 113
  • 4.2.8 Helium Mass Spectrometry 113
• 4.3 Pricing and supply 113
  • 4.3.1 Supply Challenges and Price Volatility 113
  • 4.3.2 Geopolitical Factors Affecting Supply 114
  • 4.3.3 Impact of Supply Disruptions on End-Users 115
• 4.4 Helium Separation Technologies 116
  • 4.4.1 Cryogenic Distillation 116
  • 4.4.2 5.4.2 Pressure Swing Adsorption (PSA) 117
  • 4.4.3 Membrane Separation 117
• 4.5 Helium Substitutes and Reclamation 119
  • 4.5.1 Alternative Gases for Various Applications 120
  • 4.5.2 Helium Recycling and Recovery Systems 121
  • 4.5.3 Economic and Technical Feasibility of Substitutes 121

5 NITROGEN MARKET ANALYSIS 122

• 5.1 Production Methods 122
  • 5.1.1 Cryogenic Air Separation 122
  • 5.1.2 Pressure Swing Adsorption (PSA) 122
  • 5.1.3 Membrane Separation 123
  • 5.1.4 Comparison of Production Methods 124
• 5.2 Raw Materials and Input Costs 125
  • 5.2.1 Supply Chain Analysis 125
• 5.3 Key Markets and Applications 126
  • 5.3.1 Food Packaging and Preservation 126
  • 5.3.2 Chemical and Petroleum Industries 126
  • 5.3.3 Metal Processing and Fabrication 127
  • 5.3.4 Electronics Manufacturing 127
  • 5.3.5 Healthcare and Pharmaceuticals 128
• 5.4 Other markets 129
• 5.5 Market Size and Forecast 130
  • 5.5.1 Historical Market Trends (2015-2024) 130
  • 5.5.2 Current Market Size (2024) 130
  • 5.5.3 Market Forecast (2026-2035) 131
  • 5.5.4 Market Segmentation 131
    • 5.5.4.1 By Form (Liquid Nitrogen, Compressed Nitrogen Gas) 131
    • 5.5.4.2 By Grade (High Purity, Ultra-High Purity, Standard) 132
    • 5.5.4.3 By End-use Industry 133
    • 5.5.4.4 By Production Method 134

6 HYDROGEN MARKET ANALYSIS 136

• 6.1 Hydrogen value chain 137
  • 6.1.1 Production 137
  • 6.1.2 Transport and storage 137
  • 6.1.3 Utilization 138
• 6.2 National hydrogen initiatives 140
• 6.3 Global hydrogen production 141
  • 6.3.1 Industrial applications 142
  • 6.3.2 Hydrogen energy 142
    • 6.3.2.1 Stationary use 143
    • 6.3.2.2 Hydrogen for mobility 143
  • 6.3.3 Current Annual H2 Production 144
  • 6.3.4 Hydrogen production processes 144
    • 6.3.4.1 Hydrogen as by-product 145
    • 6.3.4.2 Reforming 146
      • 6.3.4.2.1 SMR wet method 146
      • 6.3.4.2.2 Oxidation of petroleum fractions 146
      • 6.3.4.2.3 Coal gasification 146
    • 6.3.4.3 Reforming or coal gasification with CO2 capture and storage 146
    • 6.3.4.4 Steam reforming of biomethane 147
    • 6.3.4.5 Water electrolysis 148
    • 6.3.4.6 The "Power-to-Gas" concept 149
    • 6.3.4.7 Fuel cell stack 150
    • 6.3.4.8 Electrolysers 151
    • 6.3.4.9 Other 152
      • 6.3.4.9.1 Plasma technologies 152
      • 6.3.4.9.2 Photosynthesis 153
      • 6.3.4.9.3 Bacterial or biological processes 154
      • 6.3.4.9.4 Oxidation (biomimicry) 154
  • 6.3.5 Production costs 155
• 6.4 Green hydrogen 156
• 6.4.1 Overview 156
• 6.4.2 Role in energy transition 156
• 6.4.3 SWOT analysis 157
• 6.4.4 Electrolyzer technologies 158
  • 6.4.4.1 Alkaline water electrolysis (AWE) 160
  • 6.4.4.2 Anion exchange membrane (AEM) water electrolysis 161
  • 6.4.4.3 PEM water electrolysis 162
  • 6.4.4.4 Solid oxide water electrolysis 163
  • 6.4.5 Market players 164
• 6.5 Blue hydrogen (low-carbon hydrogen) 165
  • 6.5.1 Overview 166
  • 6.5.2 Advantages over green hydrogen 166
  • 6.5.3 SWOT analysis 166
  • 6.5.4 Production technologies 167
    • 6.5.4.1 Steam-methane reforming (SMR) 168
    • 6.5.4.2 Autothermal reforming (ATR) 168
    • 6.5.4.3 Partial oxidation (POX) 169
    • 6.5.4.4 Sorption Enhanced Steam Methane Reforming (SE-SMR) 170
    • 6.5.4.5 Methane pyrolysis (Turquoise hydrogen) 171
    • 6.5.4.6 Coal gasification 172
    • 6.5.4.7 Advanced autothermal gasification (AATG) 175
    • 6.5.4.8 Biomass processes 176
    • 6.5.4.9 Microwave technologies 178
    • 6.5.4.10 Dry reforming 178
    • 6.5.4.11 Plasma Reforming 179
    • 6.5.4.12 Solar SMR 179
    • 6.5.4.13 Tri-Reforming of Methane 179
    • 6.5.4.14 Membrane-assisted reforming 179
    • 6.5.4.15 Catalytic partial oxidation (CPOX) 179
    • 6.5.4.16 Chemical looping combustion (CLC) 180
• 6.6 Pink hydrogen 180
  • 6.6.1 Overview 180
  • 6.6.2 Production 180
  • 6.6.3 Applications 181
  • 6.6.4 SWOT analysis 182
  • 6.6.5 Market players 183
• 6.7 Turquoise hydrogen 183
  • 6.7.1 Overview 183
  • 6.7.2 Production 184
  • 6.7.3 Applications 184
  • 6.7.4 SWOT analysis 185
  • 6.7.5 Market players 186
• 6.8 Key Markets and Applications 187
  • 6.8.1 Hydrogen Fuel Cells 187
    • 6.8.1.1 Market overview 187
    • 6.8.1.2 PEM fuel cells (PEMFCs) 188
    • 6.8.1.3 Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) 188
    • 6.8.1.4 Alternative fuel cells 188
  • 6.8.2 Alternative fuel production 189
    • 6.8.2.1 Solid Biofuels 189
    • 6.8.2.2 Liquid Biofuels 190
    • 6.8.2.3 Gaseous Biofuels 190
    • 6.8.2.4 Conventional Biofuels 191
    • 6.8.2.5 Advanced Biofuels 191
    • 6.8.2.6 Feedstocks 192
    • 6.8.2.7 Production of biodiesel and other biofuels 193
    • 6.8.2.8 Renewable diesel 194
    • 6.8.2.9 Biojet and sustainable aviation fuel (SAF) 195
    • 6.8.2.10 Electrofuels (E-fuels, power-to-gas/liquids/fuels) 198
      • 6.8.2.10.1 Hydrogen electrolysis 201
      • 6.8.2.10.2 eFuel production facilities, current and planned 203
  • 6.8.3 Hydrogen Vehicles 207
    • 6.8.3.1 Market overview 207
  • 6.8.4 Aviation 208
    • 6.8.4.1 Market overview 208
  • 6.8.5 Ammonia production 208
    • 6.8.5.1 Market overview 209
    • 6.8.5.2 Decarbonisation of ammonia production 210
    • 6.8.5.3 Green ammonia synthesis methods 211
      • 6.8.5.3.1 Haber-Bosch process 212
      • 6.8.5.3.2 Biological nitrogen fixation 213
      • 6.8.5.3.3 Electrochemical production 213
      • 6.8.5.3.4 Chemical looping processes 213
    • 6.8.5.4 Blue ammonia 213
      • 6.8.5.4.1 Blue ammonia projects 213
    • 6.8.5.5 Chemical energy storage 214
      • 6.8.5.5.1 Ammonia fuel cells 214
      • 6.8.5.5.2 Marine fuel 215
  • 6.8.6 Methanol production 218
    • 6.8.6.1 Market overview 218
    • 6.8.6.2 Methanol-to gasoline technology 219
    • 6.8.6.3 Production processes 220
      • 6.8.6.3.1 Anaerobic digestion 221
      • 6.8.6.3.2 Biomass gasification 221
      • 6.8.6.3.3 Power to Methane 222
  • 6.8.7 Steelmaking 222
    • 6.8.7.1 Market overview 223
    • 6.8.7.2 Comparative analysis 225
    • 6.8.7.3 Hydrogen Direct Reduced Iron (DRI) 226
  • 6.8.8 Power & heat generation 228
    • 6.8.8.1 Market overview 228
      • 6.8.8.1.1 Power generation 228
      • 6.8.8.1.2 Heat Generation 228
  • 6.8.9 Maritime 228
    • 6.8.9.1 Market overview 228
    • 6.8.10 Fuel cell trains 229
      • • 6.8.10.1 Market overview 229
        • 6.8.10.2 Market Trends and Forecast 230
• 6.9 Global hydrogen demand forecasts 230
  • 6.9.1 Price Trends 231
  • 6.9.2 Market Outlook (2025-2035) 232

7 CARBON DIOXIDE MARKET ANALYSIS 232

• 7.1 Main sources of carbon dioxide emissions 232
• 7.2 CO2 as a commodity 234
  • 7.2.1 Carbon Capture 236
    • 7.2.1.1 Source Characterization 237
    • 7.2.1.2 Purification 237
    • 7.2.1.3 CO2 capture technologies 238
  • 7.2.2 Carbon Utilization 241
    • 7.2.2.1 CO2 utilization pathways 242
  • 7.2.3 Carbon storage 243
    • 7.2.3.1 Passive storage 243
    • 7.2.3.2 Enhanced oil recovery 244
• 7.3 CO? capture technologies 244
• 7.4 >90% capture rate 247
• 7.5 99% capture rate 247
• 7.6 CO2 capture from point sources 250
  • 7.6.1 Energy Availability and Costs 252
  • 7.6.2 Power plants with CCUS 253
  • 7.6.3 Transportation 254
  • 7.6.4 Global point source CO2 capture capacities 254
  • 7.6.5 By source 256
• 7.7 Main carbon capture processes 257
  • 7.7.1 Materials 257
  • 7.7.2 Post-combustion 259
    • 7.7.2.1 Chemicals/Solvents 260
    • 7.7.2.2 Amine-based post-combustion CO? absorption 262
    • 7.7.2.3 Physical absorption solvents 263
  • 7.7.3 Oxy-fuel combustion 265
    • 7.7.3.1 Oxyfuel CCUS cement projects 266
    • 7.7.3.2 Chemical Looping-Based Capture 268
  • 7.7.4 Liquid or supercritical CO2: Allam-Fetvedt Cycle 269
  • 7.7.5 Pre-combustion 270
• 7.8 Carbon separation technologies 271
  • 7.8.1 Absorption capture 272
  • 7.8.2 Adsorption capture 276
    • 7.8.2.1 Solid sorbent-based CO? separation 278
    • 7.8.2.2 Metal organic framework (MOF) adsorbents 279
    • 7.8.2.3 Zeolite-based adsorbents 280
    • 7.8.2.4 Solid amine-based adsorbents 280
    • 7.8.2.5 Carbon-based adsorbents 280
    • 7.8.2.6 Polymer-based adsorbents 281
    • 7.8.2.7 Solid sorbents in pre-combustion 282
    • 7.8.2.8 Sorption Enhanced Water Gas Shift (SEWGS) 283
    • 7.8.2.9 Solid sorbents in post-combustion 283
  • 7.8.3 Membranes 286
    • 7.8.3.1 Membrane-based CO? separation 287
    • 7.8.3.2 Post-combustion CO? capture 290
      • 7.8.3.2.1 Facilitated transport membranes 290
    • 7.8.3.3 Pre-combustion capture 292
  • 7.8.4 Liquid or supercritical CO2 (Cryogenic) capture 292
    • 7.8.4.1 Cryogenic CO? capture 293
  • 7.8.5 Calcium Looping 295
    • 7.8.5.1 Calix Advanced Calciner 295
  • 7.8.6 Other technologies 296
    • 7.8.6.1 LEILAC process 296
    • 7.8.6.2 CO? capture with Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFCs) 297
    • 7.8.6.3 CO? capture with Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells (MCFCs) 298
    • 7.8.6.4 Microalgae Carbon Capture 299
  • 7.8.7 Comparison of key separation technologies 300
  • 7.8.8 Technology readiness level (TRL) of gas separation technologies 301
• 7.9 Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS) 302
  • 7.9.1 Overview of technology 302
  • 7.9.2 Biomass conversion 303
  • 7.9.3 BECCS facilities 304
  • 7.9.4 Challenges 305
• 7.10 Direct air capture (DAC) 305
  • 7.10.1 Technology description 305
    • 7.10.1.1 Sorbent-based CO2 Capture 306
    • 7.10.1.2 Solvent-based CO2 Capture 306
    • 7.10.1.3 DAC Solid Sorbent Swing Adsorption Processes 307
    • 7.10.1.4 Electro-Swing Adsorption (ESA) of CO2 for DAC 307
    • 7.10.1.5 Solid and liquid DAC 308
  • 7.10.2 Advantages of DAC 309
  • 7.10.3 Deployment 310
  • 7.10.4 Point source carbon capture versus Direct Air Capture 311
  • 7.10.5 Technologies 312
    • 7.10.5.1 Solid sorbents 313
    • 7.10.5.2 Liquid sorbents 315
    • 7.10.5.3 Liquid solvents 316
    • 7.10.5.4 Airflow equipment integration 316
    • 7.10.5.5 Passive Direct Air Capture (PDAC) 317
    • 7.10.5.6 Direct conversion 317
    • 7.10.5.7 Co-product generation 318
    • 7.10.5.8 Low Temperature DAC 318
    • 7.10.5.9 Regeneration methods 318
  • 7.10.6 Electricity and Heat Sources 319
  • 7.10.7 Commercialization and plants 319
  • 7.10.8 Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) in DAC 320
  • 7.10.9 DAC plants and projects-current and planned 320
  • 7.10.10 Capacity forecasts 327
  • 7.10.11 Costs 328
  • 7.10.12 Market challenges for DAC 334
  • 7.10.13 Market prospects for direct air capture 335
  • 7.10.14 Players and production 337
• 7.11 Global market forecasts 338
  • 7.11.1 CCUS capture capacity forecast by end point 338
  • 7.11.2 Capture capacity by region to 2045, Mtpa 339
  • 7.11.3 Revenues 340
  • 7.11.4 CCUS capacity forecast by capture type 340

8 ARGON MARKET ANALYSIS 342

• 8.1 Overview of Argon 342
  • 8.1.1 Chemical Properties and Characteristics 342
  • 8.1.2 Natural Occurrence and Abundance 342
  • 8.1.3 Importance of Argon in Various Industries 343
• 8.2 Raw Materials and Input Costs 344
• 8.3 Global Production Capacity 345
• 8.4 Supply Chain Analysis 345
• 8.5 Production Methods 345
  • 8.5.1 Air Separation Units (ASUs) 345
  • 8.5.2 Cryogenic Distillation 347
  • 8.5.3 Pressure Swing Adsorption (PSA) 348
• 8.6 Key Applications 348
  • 8.6.1 Metal Production and Fabrication 348
  • 8.6.2 Welding and Cutting 349
  • 8.6.3 Electronics and Semiconductor Manufacturing 350
  • 8.6.4 Lighting Industry 351
  • 8.6.5 Other markets 351
• 8.7 Market Trends and Forecast 352
  • 8.7.1 Historical Market Trends (2015-2024) 352
  • 8.7.2 Current Market Size (2025) 353
  • 8.7.3 Market Forecast (2026-2035) 353
  • 8.7.4 Market Segmentation 354
    • 8.7.4.1 By Form (Liquid Argon, Compressed Argon Gas) 354
    • 8.7.4.2 By Grade (Ultra-High Purity, High Purity, Standard) 355
    • 8.7.4.3 By End-use Industry. 356
    • 8.7.4.4 By Production Method 357
  • 8.7.5 Pricing Analysis 358
    • 8.7.5.1 Historical Price Trends 358
    • 8.7.5.2 Current Pricing Patterns 358
    • 8.7.5.3 Factors Affecting Argon Prices 359

9 OTHER SPECIALTY GASES MARKET ANALYSIS 360

10 END-USE INDUSTRY ANALYSIS 362

• 10.1 Manufacturing and Metallurgy 362
• 10.2 Chemicals and Petrochemicals 363
• 10.3 Healthcare and Pharmaceuticals 364
• 10.4 Food and Beverage 365
• 10.5 Electronics and Semiconductor 366
• 10.6 Energy and Power Generation 367
• 10.7 Aerospace and Aviation 367
• 10.8 Environmental and Water Treatment 368
• 10.9 Technology and Innovation 368
  • 10.9.1 Advancements in Production Technologies 369
  • 10.9.2 Smart Manufacturing and Industry 4.0 in Gas Production 369
  • 10.9.3 Digitalization and IoT in Supply Chain Management 370
  • 10.9.4 Emerging Applications and Novel Uses of Industrial Gases 371

11 COMPETITIVE LANDSCAPE 373

• 11.1 Market Structure and Concentration 373
• 11.2 Key Players and Market Share Analysis 373
• 11.3 Competitive Strategies 375
• 11.4 SWOT Analysis of Major Players 376
• 11.5 Market Dynamics and Trends 377
  • 11.5.1 Pricing Trends and Factors Affecting Pricing 377
  • 11.5.2 Supply-Demand Balance and Trade Dynamics 379
  • 11.5.3 Impact of Energy Prices on Production Costs 379
• 11.6 Regulatory Environment and Compliance Issues 380
• 11.7 Sustainability Initiatives in the Industry 381
• 11.8 Impact of Global Events on the Industrial Gas Market 381
• 11.9 Future Outlook and Market Forecast 382
• 11.10 Long-term Market Projections (2025-2035) 382
• 11.11 Emerging Applications and Potential Game-Changers 383
• 11.12 Investment Opportunities and Recommendations 384

12 COMPANY PROFILES 386 (579 company profiles)

13 APPENDIX 783

• 13.1 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 783
• 13.2 Glossary of Terms 784
• 13.3 List of Abbreviations 784

14 REFERENCES 785

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List of Tables/Graphs

List of Tables

• Table 1. Classification of Industrial Gases. 37
• Table 2. Other specialty gases. 47
• Table 3. Key Applications and End-Use Industries. 49
• Table 4. Comparison of production methods and technologies. 51
• Table 5. Global Industrial Gas Market Size, by Gas Type (2015-2035). 58
• Table 6.Global Industrial Gas Market Size, by End-Use Industry (2015-2035) 60
• Table 7. Industrial Gas Market Size, by Supply Mode (2015-2035). 61
• Table 8. North America Industrial Gas Market Size, by Type (2015-2035). 62
• Table 9. Europe Industrial Gas Market Size, by Type (2015-2035). 64
• Table 10. Asia-Pacific Industrial Gas Market Size, by Type (2015-2035). 65
• Table 11. Latin America Industrial Gas Market Size, by Type (2015-2035). 65
• Table 12. Middle East and Africa Industrial Gas Market Size, by Type (2015-2035). 66
• Table 13. Industrial Gases Market Drivers and Restraints. 67
• Table 14. Industrial oxygen by purity levels and corresponding applications 69
• Table 15. Comparison of different oxygen storage mediums. 81
• Table 16. Global production and consumption of industrial oxygen by region-2020-2035 (million metric tons). 81
• Table 17. Current and projected annual production of industrial oxygen, by purity, 2019-2035 (million metric tons). 82
• Table 18. Global industrial oxygen production from 2019-2035 by industrial application area (million metric tons). 83
• Table 19. Global annual production of industrial oxygen, by production costs, 2019-2035 (million metric tons). 86
• Table 20. Pricing matrix for commercial oxygen based on purity level and industrial application. 89
• Table 21. 27 NSF/ANSI Standard 60 Certified suppliers and locations. 97
• Table 22. Major Global Helium Production Sites. 101
• Table 23. Global Helium Production Capacity (2005-2023). 101
• Table 24. Forecast for Yearly Global Helium Production Capacity (2020-2035). 102
• Table 25. Global helium market by applications 2020-3035. 103
• Table 26. Comparison of Helium Production Capacity and Demand Forecast (2024-2035). 104
• Table 27. Demand Trends in Semiconductor Industry. 107
• Table 28. Historical Price Trends. 115
• Table 29. Comparison of Helium Separation Technologies. 116
• Table 30. Technology Readiness of Helium Reclamation in Key Markets. 119
• Table 31. Global Nitrogen Market 2020-2035, By Form. 131
• Table 32. Global Nitrogen Market 2020-2035, By Grade (High Purity, Ultra-High Purity, Standard). 132
• Table 33. Global Nitrogen Market 2020-2035, By End-use Industry. 133
• Table 34. Global Nitrogen Market 2020-2035, By Production Method. 134
• Table 35. Hydrogen colour shades, Technology, cost, and CO2 emissions. 136
• Table 36. National hydrogen initiatives. 140
• Table 37. Industrial applications of hydrogen. 142
• Table 38. Hydrogen energy markets and applications. 143
• Table 39. Hydrogen production processes and stage of development. 145
• Table 40. Estimated costs of clean hydrogen production. 155
• Table 41. Characteristics of typical water electrolysis technologies 159
• Table 42. Advantages and disadvantages of water electrolysis technologies. 160
• Table 43. Market players in green hydrogen (electrolyzers). 164
• Table 44. Technology Readiness Levels (TRL) of main production technologies for blue hydrogen. 167
• Table 45. Key players in methane pyrolysis. 172
• Table 46. Commercial coal gasifier technologies. 173
• Table 47. Blue hydrogen projects using CG. 174
• Table 48. Biomass processes summary, process description and TRL. 176
• Table 49. Pathways for hydrogen production from biomass. 177
• Table 50. Market players in pink hydrogen. 183
• Table 51. Market players in turquoise hydrogen. 186
• Table 52. Market overview hydrogen fuel cells-applications, market players and market challenges. 187
• Table 53. Categories and examples of solid biofuel. 189
• Table 54. Comparison of biofuels and e-fuels to fossil and electricity. 191
• Table 55. Classification of biomass feedstock. 192
• Table 56. Biorefinery feedstocks. 192
• Table 57. Feedstock conversion pathways. 193
• Table 58. Biodiesel production techniques. 193
• Table 59. Advantages and disadvantages of biojet fuel 195
• Table 60. Production pathways for bio-jet fuel. 196
• Table 61. Applications of e-fuels, by type. 199
• Table 62. Overview of e-fuels. 200
• Table 63. Benefits of e-fuels. 200
• Table 64. eFuel production facilities, current and planned. 203
• Table 65. Market overview for hydrogen vehicles-applications, market players and market challenges. 207
• Table 66. Blue ammonia projects. 213
• Table 67. Ammonia fuel cell technologies. 214
• Table 68. Market overview of green ammonia in marine fuel. 215
• Table 69. Summary of marine alternative fuels. 216
• Table 70. Estimated costs for different types of ammonia. 217
• Table 71. Comparison of biogas, biomethane and natural gas. 220
• Table 72. Hydrogen-based steelmaking technologies. 225
• Table 73. Comparison of green steel production technologies. 225
• Table 74. Advantages and disadvantages of each potential hydrogen carrier. 227
• Table 75. Approaches for capturing carbon dioxide (CO2) from point sources. 237
• Table 76. CO2 capture technologies. 238
• Table 77. Advantages and challenges of carbon capture technologies. 239
• Table 78. Overview of commercial materials and processes utilized in carbon capture. 240
• Table 79. Comparison of CO? capture technologies. 244
• Table 80. Typical conditions and performance for different capture technologies. 246
• Table 81. PSCC technologies. 250
• Table 82. Point source examples. 250
• Table 83. Comparison of point-source CO? capture systems 251
• Table 84. Assessment of carbon capture materials 257
• Table 85. Chemical solvents used in post-combustion. 260
• Table 86. Comparison of key chemical solvent-based systems. 262
• Table 87. Chemical absorption solvents used in current operational CCUS point-source projects. 262
• Table 88.Comparison of key physical absorption solvents. 263
• Table 89.Physical solvents used in current operational CCUS point-source projects. 263
• Table 90.Emerging solvents for carbon capture 265
• Table 91. Oxygen separation technologies for oxy-fuel combustion. 265
• Table 92. Large-scale oxyfuel CCUS cement projects. 267
• Table 93. Commercially available physical solvents for pre-combustion carbon capture. 271
• Table 94. Main capture processes and their separation technologies. 271
• Table 95. Absorption methods for CO2 capture overview. 273
• Table 96. Commercially available physical solvents used in CO2 absorption. 275
• Table 97. Adsorption methods for CO2 capture overview. 276
• Table 98. Solid sorbents explored for carbon capture. 278
• Table 99. Carbon-based adsorbents for CO? capture. 281
• Table 100. Polymer-based adsorbents. 281
• Table 101. Solid sorbents for post-combustion CO? capture. 284
• Table 102. Emerging Solid Sorbent Systems. 284
• Table 103. Membrane-based methods for CO2 capture overview. 286
• Table 104. Comparison of membrane materials for CCUS 288
• Table 105.Commercial status of membranes in carbon capture 289
• Table 106. Membranes for pre-combustion capture. 292
• Table 107. Status of cryogenic CO? capture technologies. 293
• Table 108. Benefits and drawbacks of microalgae carbon capture. 299
• Table 109. Comparison of main separation technologies. 300
• Table 110. Technology readiness level (TRL) of gas separation technologies 301
• Table 111. Existing and planned capacity for sequestration of biogenic carbon. 304
• Table 112. Existing facilities with capture and/or geologic sequestration of biogenic CO2. 304
• Table 113. DAC technologies. 306
• Table 114. Advantages and disadvantages of DAC. 309
• Table 115. Advantages of DAC as a CO2 removal strategy. 310
• Table 116. Companies developing airflow equipment integration with DAC. 317
• Table 117. Companies developing Passive Direct Air Capture (PDAC) technologies. 317
• Table 118. Companies developing regeneration methods for DAC technologies. 318
• Table 119. DAC companies and technologies. 320
• Table 120. DAC technology developers and production. 321
• Table 121. DAC projects in development. 326
• Table 122. DACCS carbon removal capacity forecast (million metric tons of CO? per year), 2024-2045, base case. 327
• Table 123. DACCS carbon removal capacity forecast (million metric tons of CO? per year), 2030-2045, optimistic case. 328
• Table 124. Costs summary for DAC. 328
• Table 125. Typical cost contributions of the main components of a DACCS system. 330
• Table 126. Cost estimates of DAC. 333
• Table 127. Challenges for DAC technology. 334
• Table 128. DAC companies and technologies. 337
• Table 129. CCUS capture capacity forecast by CO? endpoint, Mtpa of CO?, to 2045. 339
• Table 130. Capture capacity by region to 2045, Mtpa. 339
• Table 131. CCUS revenue potential for captured CO? offtaker, billion US $ to 2045. 340
• Table 132. CCUS capacity forecast by capture type, Mtpa of CO?, to 2045. 340
• Table 133. Point-source CCUS capture capacity forecast by CO? source sector, Mtpa of CO?, to 2045. 340
• Table 134. Argon Market 2020-2035, By Form. 354
• Table 135. Argon Market 2020-2035, By Grade. 355
• Table 136. Argon Market 2020-2035, By End-use Industry. 356
• Table 137. Argon Market 2020-2035, By Production Method. 357
• Table 138. Argon Price Forecast (2026-2035). 360
• Table 139. Summary of markets for other specialty gases. 360

List of Figures

• Figure 1.Global Industrial Gas Market Size, by Gas Type (2015-2035). 59
• Figure 2. Global Industrial Gas Market Size, by End-Use Industry (2015-2035). 61
• Figure 3. Industrial Gas Market Size, by Supply Mode (2015-2035). 61
• Figure 4. North America Industrial Gas Market Size, by Type (2015-2035). 63
• Figure 5. Europe Industrial Gas Market Size, by Type (2015-2035). 64
• Figure 6. Asia-Pacific Industrial Gas Market Size, by Type (2015-2035). 65
• Figure 7. Latin America Industrial Gas Market Size, by Type (2015-2035). 66
• Figure 8. Middle East and Africa Industrial Gas Market Size, by Type (2015-2035). 67
• Figure 9. Global production and consumption of industrial oxygen by region-2020-2035 (million metric tons). 82
• Figure 10. Current and projected annual production of industrial oxygen, by purity, 2019-2035 (million metric tons). 83
• Figure 11. Global industrial oxygen production from 2019-2035 by industrial application area (million metric tons). 85
• Figure 12. Global annual production of industrial oxygen, by production costs, 2019-2035 (million metric tons). 87
• Figure 13. Industrial Oxygen Market Value Chain. 97
• Figure 14. Forecast for Yearly Global Helium Production Capacity (2020-2035). 102
• Figure 15. Global helium market by applications 2020-3035. 104
• Figure 16. Comparison of Helium Production Capacity and Demand Forecast (2024-2035). 105
• Figure 17. Global Nitrogen Market 2020-2035, By Form. 132
• Figure 18. Global Nitrogen Market 2020-2035, By Grade (High Purity, Ultra-High Purity, Standard). 132
• Figure 19. Global Nitrogen Market 2020-2035, By End-use Industry. 133
• Figure 20. Global Nitrogen Market 2020-2035, By Production Method. 135
• Figure 21. Hydrogen value chain. 139
• Figure 22. Current Annual H2 Production. 144
• Figure 23. Principle of a PEM electrolyser. 148
• Figure 24. Power-to-gas concept. 150
• Figure 25. Schematic of a fuel cell stack. 151
• Figure 26. High pressure electrolyser - 1 MW. 152
• Figure 27. SWOT analysis: green hydrogen. 158
• Figure 28. Types of electrolysis technologies. 158
• Figure 29. Schematic of alkaline water electrolysis working principle. 161
• Figure 30. Schematic of PEM water electrolysis working principle. 163
• Figure 31. Schematic of solid oxide water electrolysis working principle. 164
• Figure 32. SWOT analysis: blue hydrogen. 167
• Figure 33. SMR process flow diagram of steam methane reforming with carbon capture and storage (SMR-CCS). 168
• Figure 34. Process flow diagram of autothermal reforming with a carbon capture and storage (ATR-CCS) plant. 169
• Figure 35. POX process flow diagram. 170
• Figure 36. Process flow diagram for a typical SE-SMR. 171
• Figure 37. HiiROC’s methane pyrolysis reactor. 172
• Figure 38. Coal gasification (CG) process. 173
• Figure 39. Flow diagram of Advanced autothermal gasification (AATG). 175
• Figure 40. Pink hydrogen Production Pathway. 181
• Figure 41. SWOT analysis: pink hydrogen 183
• Figure 42. Turquoise hydrogen Production Pathway. 184
• Figure 43. SWOT analysis: turquoise hydrogen 186
• Figure 44. Process steps in the production of electrofuels. 198
• Figure 45. Mapping storage technologies according to performance characteristics. 199
• Figure 46. Production process for green hydrogen. 201
• Figure 47. E-liquids production routes. 202
• Figure 48. Fischer-Tropsch liquid e-fuel products. 202
• Figure 49. Resources required for liquid e-fuel production. 203
• Figure 50. Levelized cost and fuel-switching CO2 prices of e-fuels. 205
• Figure 51. Cost breakdown for e-fuels. 206
• Figure 52. Hydrogen fuel cell powered EV. 207
• Figure 53. Green ammonia production and use. 210
• Figure 54. Classification and process technology according to carbon emission in ammonia production. 211
• Figure 55. Schematic of the Haber Bosch ammonia synthesis reaction. 212
• Figure 56. Schematic of hydrogen production via steam methane reformation. 212
• Figure 57. Estimated production cost of green ammonia. 218
• Figure 58. Renewable Methanol Production Processes from Different Feedstocks. 220
• Figure 59. Production of biomethane through anaerobic digestion and upgrading. 221
• Figure 60. Production of biomethane through biomass gasification and methanation. 222
• Figure 61. Production of biomethane through the Power to methane process. 222
• Figure 62. Transition to hydrogen-based production. 224
• Figure 63. CO2 emissions from steelmaking (tCO2/ton crude steel). 224
• Figure 64. Hydrogen Direct Reduced Iron (DRI) process. 227
• Figure 65. Three Gorges Hydrogen Boat No. 1. 229
• Figure 66. PESA hydrogen-powered shunting locomotive. 230
• Figure 67. Global hydrogen demand forecast. 231
• Figure 68. Carbon emissions by sector. 233
• Figure 69. Overview of CCUS market 234
• Figure 70. CCUS business model. 236
• Figure 71. Pathways for CO2 use. 236
• Figure 72. A pre-combustion capture system. 238
• Figure 73. Carbon dioxide utilization and removal cycle. 242
• Figure 74. Various pathways for CO2 utilization. 243
• Figure 75. Example of underground carbon dioxide storage. 244
• Figure 76. CO2 capture and separation technology. 245
• Figure 77. Global capacity of point-source carbon capture and storage facilities. 255
• Figure 78. Global carbon capture capacity by CO2 source, 2023. 256
• Figure 79. Global carbon capture capacity by CO2 source, 2040. 257
• Figure 80. Post-combustion carbon capture process. 259
• Figure 81. Post-combustion CO2 Capture in a Coal-Fired Power Plant. 260
• Figure 82. Oxy-combustion carbon capture process. 266
• Figure 83. Process schematic of chemical looping. 269
• Figure 84. Liquid or supercritical CO2 carbon capture process. 270
• Figure 85. Pre-combustion carbon capture process. 271
• Figure 86. Amine-based absorption technology. 274
• Figure 87. Pressure swing absorption technology. 278
• Figure 88. Membrane separation technology. 287
• Figure 89. Liquid or supercritical CO2 (cryogenic) distillation. 293
• Figure 90. Cryocap™ process. 294
• Figure 91. Calix advanced calcination reactor. 296
• Figure 92. LEILAC process. 297
• Figure 93. Fuel Cell CO2 Capture diagram. 298
• Figure 94. Microalgal carbon capture. 299
• Figure 95. Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS) process. 303
• Figure 96. CO2 captured from air using liquid and solid sorbent DAC plants, storage, and reuse. 308
• Figure 97. Global CO2 capture from biomass and DAC in the Net Zero Scenario. 309
• Figure 98. Potential for DAC removal versus other carbon removal methods. 311
• Figure 99. DAC technologies. 312
• Figure 100. Schematic of Climeworks DAC system. 313
• Figure 101. Climeworks’ first commercial direct air capture (DAC) plant, based in Hinwil, Switzerland. 314
• Figure 102. Flow diagram for solid sorbent DAC. 315
• Figure 103. Direct air capture based on high temperature liquid sorbent by Carbon Engineering. 316
• Figure 104. Global capacity of direct air capture facilities. 321
• Figure 105. Global map of DAC and CCS plants. 327
• Figure 106. Schematic of costs of DAC technologies. 331
• Figure 107. DAC cost breakdown and comparison. 332
• Figure 108. Operating costs of generic liquid and solid-based DAC systems. 334
• Figure 109. Argon Market 2020-2035, By Form. 355
• Figure 110. Argon Market 2020-2035, By Grade. 356
• Figure 111. Argon Market 2020-2035, By End-use Industry. 357
• Figure 112. Argon Market 2020-2035, By Production Method. 358
• Figure 113. Symbiotic™ technology process. 387
• Figure 114. Alchemr AEM electrolyzer cell. 396
• Figure 115. HyCS® technology system. 398
• Figure 116. Fuel cell module FCwave™. 405
• Figure 117. Direct Air Capture Process. 413
• Figure 118. CRI process. 415
• Figure 119. Croft system. 425
• Figure 120. ECFORM electrolysis reactor schematic. 431
• Figure 121. Domsjö process. 432
• Figure 122. EH Fuel Cell Stack. 434
• Figure 123. Direct MCH® process. 438
• Figure 124. Electriq's dehydrogenation system. 441
• Figure 125. Endua Power Bank. 443
• Figure 126. EL 2.1 AEM Electrolyser. 444
• Figure 127. Enapter – Anion Exchange Membrane (AEM) Water Electrolysis. 445
• Figure 128. Hyundai Class 8 truck fuels at a First Element high capacity mobile refueler. 451
• Figure 129. FuelPositive system. 454
• Figure 130. Using electricity from solar power to produce green hydrogen. 461
• Figure 131. Hydrogen Storage Module. 472
• Figure 132. Plug And Play Stationery Storage Units. 472
• Figure 133. Left: a typical single-stage electrolyzer design, with a membrane separating the hydrogen and oxygen gasses. Right: the two-stage E-TAC process. 475
• Figure 134. Hystar PEM electrolyser. 490
• Figure 135. KEYOU-H2-Technology. 500
• Figure 136. Audi/Krajete unit. 501
• Figure 137. OCOchem’s Carbon Flux Electrolyzer. 519
• Figure 138. CO2 hydrogenation to jet fuel range hydrocarbons process. 523
• Figure 139. The Plagazi ® process. 529
• Figure 140. Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell. 533
• Figure 141. Sunfire process for Blue Crude production. 550
• Figure 142. CALF-20 has been integrated into a rotating CO2 capture machine (left), which operates inside a CO2 plant module (right). 553
• Figure 143. Tevva hydrogen truck. 559
• Figure 144. Topsoe's SynCORTM autothermal reforming technology. 562
• Figure 145. O12 Reactor. 567
• Figure 146. Sunglasses with lenses made from CO2-derived materials. 567
• Figure 147. CO2 made car part. 568
• Figure 148. The Velocys process. 571
• Figure 149. Air Products production process. 581
• Figure 150. Aker carbon capture system. 586
• Figure 151. ALGIECEL PhotoBioReactor. 588
• Figure 152. Schematic of carbon capture solar project. 593
• Figure 153. Aspiring Materials method. 594
• Figure 154. Aymium’s Biocarbon production. 597
• Figure 155. Capchar prototype pyrolysis kiln. 609
• Figure 156. Carbonminer technology. 615
• Figure 157. Carbon Blade system. 620
• Figure 158. CarbonCure Technology. 626
• Figure 159. Direct Air Capture Process. 628
• Figure 160. CRI process. 631
• Figure 161. PCCSD Project in China. 645
• Figure 162. Orca facility. 646
• Figure 163. Process flow scheme of Compact Carbon Capture Plant. 650
• Figure 164. Colyser process. 652
• Figure 165. ECFORM electrolysis reactor schematic. 659
• Figure 166. Dioxycle modular electrolyzer. 660
• Figure 167. Fuel Cell Carbon Capture. 677
• Figure 168. Topsoe's SynCORTM autothermal reforming technology. 686
• Figure 169. Carbon Capture balloon. 689
• Figure 170. Holy Grail DAC system. 691
• Figure 171. INERATEC unit. 696
• Figure 172. Infinitree swing method. 697
• Figure 173. Audi/Krajete unit. 702
• Figure 174. Made of Air's HexChar panels. 711
• Figure 175. Mosaic Materials MOFs. 719
• Figure 176. Neustark modular plant. 722
• Figure 177. OCOchem’s Carbon Flux Electrolyzer. 730
• Figure 178. ZerCaL™ process. 732
• Figure 179. CCS project at Arthit offshore gas field. 742
• Figure 180. RepAir technology. 746
• Figure 181. Soletair Power unit. 758
• Figure 182. Sunfire process for Blue Crude production. 764
• Figure 183. CALF-20 has been integrated into a rotating CO2 capture machine (left), which operates inside a CO2 plant module (right). 766
• Figure 184. Takavator. 768
• Figure 185. O12 Reactor. 773
• Figure 186. Sunglasses with lenses made from CO2-derived materials. 773
• Figure 187. CO2 made car part. 774
• Figure 188. Molecular sieving membrane. 775